The effects of the injection moulding temperature on the mechanical properties and morphology of polypropylene man-made cellulose fibre composites

Composites made of polypropylene and man-made cellulose fibres that are intended for injection moulding applications show potential for use in sustainable and light weight engineering with high energy absorption capacity. Due to the thermal sensitivity of the cellulose fibres, process parameters play an important role during the injection moulding process. A polypropylene and a man-made cellulose fibre were chosen for this investigation. Effective melt temperatures between 200 °C and 269 °C were used to process the compounds into test specimens. Tensile, impact and colorimetric tests, as well as an SEM analysis, and a measurement of the fibre length distribution were carried out in order to characterise the mechanical and optical properties of the composites. It was observed that the fibre length becomes shorter above 256 °C and elongation at break and Charpy strength (notched) of the composites already decrease at lower temperatures than tensile strength. A direct correlation between mechanical properties and discoloration was not observed. Therefore, melt temperatures up to 250 °C are suitable for these composites.     

Mechanical property and hydrothermal aging of injection molded jute/polypropylene composites

This study discussed the effects of jute fiber content and hot water immersion on the tensile properties of jute fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) composites. The jute/PP composite with different fiber contents was molded by injection molding by dry-blending of jute/PP and neat PP pellets in various mix ratios. Firstly, the quasi-static tensile test was performed. Then the specimens were aged in hot distilled water at 80 °C. After the fixed periods of aging, the changed weight and the tensile properties were investigated. It is found that with the increase of the jute fiber content, the tensile modulus is increased lineally. However, referring to the tensile strength, it is increased firstly followed by a decreased when the jute weight percent is over 30. Additionally, it is found that the weight gain by water absorption was significantly affected by the fiber content. The specimens with the jute fiber content of or over 30 wt% absorbed water easily and significant material loss by aging was also occurred. The tensile strength after aging decreased remarkably in these specimens with the jute fiber content of or over 30 wt%, and all the jute/PP composites showed the lower strength than neat PP after the aging of 1000 h. It is considered that the hydrophilic property of natural fiber decreases the resistance of the composite in humidity environment.     

Conductive CNF-reinforced hybrid composites by injection moulding

A carbon nanofibre (CNF)-loaded polyester matrix was used to prepare glass reinforced plastic (GRP) composites by light resin transfer moulding (LRTM) process in two different ways. The CNF-resin dispersion was injected or applied as a gel-coat in the mould. The incorporation of CNF to the injected matrix produced an increase in the strength of the composites at any studied CNF composition. The CNF gel-coat only produced reinforcement at 2 wt.% CNF load. Electrical characterization showed volume resistivity values below 10⁵ Ω cm with only 0.5 wt.% CNF in the matrix.     

Conductive PE-carbon composites by elongation flow injection moulding

In Part 1 and Part 2 of this paper the preparation of linear polyethylene (PE)-carbon black processed composites with conducting electrical properties was examined by means of elongation flow injection moulding. Mould geometry was optimized in the form of oriented double-armed bars so as to give enhanced mechanical properties combined with a high degree of electrical homogeneity. The present paper deals with composites using a high molecular weight PE matrix. It is shown that the injection-moulded composite material exhibits not only a lower percolation threshold, _c, than the conventionally pressure-moulded isotropic sample, but also conductivities two to three orders of magnitude larger than the latter. The radial and axial conductivity profiles, for concentrations well above _c, are discussed in the light of the molecular orientation variations across the bars as determined by birefringence. A segregation of primary filler particles, during flow-induced orientation, into axial channels has been shown to explain the enhancement of conductivity detected in the injected mouldings. In addition, for filler concentrations near 7%, -profile analysis indicates the development of a uniform conductive-stiff inner cylinder, several millimetres wide, homogeneously extending along the full length of the injected material.     

Mechanical properties of PLA composites with man-made cellulose and abaca fibres

PLA biocomposites with abaca and man-made cellulose fibres were processed by using combined moulding technology: two-step extrusion coating process and consecutively injection moulding. By adding 30 wt% of man-made cellulose, the Charpy impact strength at ambient temperature increased by factor 3.60, compared to unreinforced PLA. Tensile strength rose by factor 1.45 and stiffness by approx. 1.75. Reinforcing with abaca fibres (30 wt%) enhanced both E-Modulus and tensile strength by factor 2.40 and 1.20, respectively. The Charpy A-notch impact resistance of PLA/abaca could be improved by factor 2.4.SEM photographs show fibre pull-outs from the polymer matrix. The fibre orientation was analysed via optical microscopy. The after-process fibre length was significantly affected already during compounding process.     

Conductive PE-carbon black composites by elongational flow injection moulding

A study of the distribution of electrical conductivity in elongational-flow injection-moulded high-density polyethylene materials containing carbon black is reported. Radial and axial conductivity profiles are discussed in terms of molecular orientation variations across the bars. It is shown that for low and intermediate molecular weight matrices the conductivity decreases after material orientation through injection moulding. For high molecular weight polyethylene, as demonstrated in Part 1 of this report, conductivity increases with orientation. The results are qualitatively explained in terms of three principal effects: (i) orientation of particle aggregates during injection moulding, (ii) degradation of the aggregates depending on molecular weight, and (iii) flow-induced segregation of additive particles. The variation of the percolation threshold for the composites is additionally discussed for isotropic and injection-moulded materials in terms of factors affecting the mixing efficiency between filler and molten polymer.     

短纤维增强聚丙烯泡沫复合材料的研究新进展

详细介绍了天然纤维、短玻璃纤维、碳纳米纤维及晶须等在增强PP泡沫复合材料中的应用;重点阐述了短纤维的种类和含量对发泡行为、微观结构及力学性能等的影响规律,并总结了相关增强机理;展望了短纤维/PP泡沫复合材料的发展趋势。     

短纤维混杂增强PP复合泡沫材料的力学性能

将助剂预混与二次挤出工艺相结合制备含短纤维预发泡粒料, 并用型内二次发泡工艺制备了短炭纤维(SCF)、 短玻璃纤维(SGF)混杂增强聚丙烯(PP)复合泡沫材料。研究了在纤维总质量分数不变时, SCF与SGF的相对含量、 增强纤维与PP的界面性能及泡沫体的表观密度对PP复合泡沫材料的发泡效果和力学性能的影响。结果表明: SGF和SCF的同时加入能够改善PP的高温熔体强度, 获得孔径较小且均一的类球形的闭孔PP泡沫体。SGF和SCF混杂增强提高了PP复合泡沫材料的强度和模量, 且增强效果高于单一纤维, 当纤维总质量分数为15%, 且SGF ∶SCF为1 ∶1时(质量比), PP复合泡沫材料的抗弯强度和抗压强度最高, 而SGF ∶SCF为3 ∶1时, PP泡沫复合材料的冲击韧性和压缩模量达到最大值 。泡沫体的表观密度对PP复合泡沫材料的冲击韧性和抗压强度影响显著, 当表观密度从0.32g/cm3增至0.45g/cm3时, 冲击韧性和抗压强度分别从4.29kJ/m2和6.57MPa 提高到17.87kJ/m2和20.57MPa。      

Microcellular polypropylene single-polymer composites prepared by insert-microcellular injection molding

An insert-microcellular injection molding process was performed on an injection molding machine equipped with a supercritical fluid system. The prepared microcellular polypropylene (PP) single-polymer composites (SPCs) combine the advantages of SPCs with benefits of microcellular plastics, they hold the promise for further reduced weight, improved fiber-matrix interface and enhanced recyclability. In comparison with the solid PP, the weight reductions of the tensile and impact microcellular PP SPCs (MPPSPCs) could be up to 12.9% and 3.3% respectively, the tensile and impact strengths of the MPPSPCs were improved by 59% and 1799% respectively. Based on the tensile properties, the injection temperature of 220 °C and injection speed of 70 mm/s were the optimum processing for the tensile MPPSPC samples. The typical morphology structure of the MPPSPC sample includes five different layers: sandwiched fabric layer, transition layer between fabric and core, center core layer, transition layer between skin and center core, skin layer.     

Flexural behavior of geopolymer composites reinforced with steel and polypropylene macro fibers

Like ordinary Portland cement concrete, the matrix brittleness in geopolymer composites can be reduced by introducing appropriate fiber reinforcement. Several studies on fiber reinforced geopolymer composites are available, however there is still a gap to understand and optimize their performance. This paper presents the flexural behavior of fly ash-based geopolymer composites reinforced with different types of macro steel and polypropylene fibers with higher aspect ratio. Three types (length-deformed, end-deformed and straight) of steel fibers and another type of length-deformed polypropylene fiber with optimum fiber volume fraction of 0.5% are studied. The effects of different geometries of the fibers, curing regimes (ambient cured and heat cured at 60 °C for 24 h) and concentration of NaOH activator (10 M and 12 M) on the first peak strength, modulus of rupture and toughness of the geopolymer composites are investigated. The quantitative effect of fiber geometry on geopolymer composite performance was also analyzed through a fiber deformation ratio. The compressive strength, splitting tensile strength and flexural toughness are significantly improved with macro fibers reinforcement and heat curing. The results also show that heat curing increases the first peak load of all fiber-reinforced geopolymers composites. End-deformed steel fibers exhibit the most ductile flexural response compared to other steel fibers in both heat and ambient-cured fiber reinforced geopolymer composites.     

Effect of jute and kapok fibers on properties of thermoplastic cassava starch composites

Since mechanical properties and water uptake of biodegradable thermoplastic cassava starch (TPCS) was still the main disadvantages for many applications. The TPCS matrix was, therefore, reinforced by two types of cellulosic fibers, i.e. jute or kapok fibers; classified as the low and high oil absorbency characteristics, respectively. The TPCS, plasticized by glycerol, was compounded by internal mixer and shaped by compression molding machine. It was found that water absorption of the TPCS/jute fiber and TPCS/kapok fiber composites was clearly reduced by the addition of the cellulosic fibers. Moreover, stress at maximum load and Young’s modulus of the composites increased significantly by the incorporation of both jute and kapok fibers. Thermal degradation temperature, determined from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), of the TPCS matrix increased by the addition of jute fibers; however, thermal degradation temperature decreased by the addition of kapok fibers. Functional group analysis and morphology of the TPCS/jute fiber and TPCS/kapok fiber composites were also examined using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) techniques.     

Compression moulding of glass and polypropylene composites for optimised macro- and micro- mechanical properties-1 commingled glass and polypropylene

The continuing desire in the automotive industry to reduce cost and weight while increasing safety requires innovative materials and processing routes. Glass-mat-reinforced thermoplastics have been used to produce semi-structural components but a higher and aligned glass fibre content is required in moulding materials for structural applications. Experimental design was used to investigate the non-isothermal processing of commingled fabrics which were woven from yarns of intimately mingled glass and polypropylene fibres. Processing models were generated by regression techniques to predict laminate properties over a range of processing conditions. Void contents were measured by image analysis techniques. Preheat temperature had the greatest effect on laminate flexural properties and porosity. A compaction time of 54 s was required to consolidate, cool and reduce the void content in laminates. A two-fold increase in stiffness was found compared with equivalent glass-mat-reinforced thermoplastic laminates. The intimate distribution of matrix and reinforcement reduced moulding pressures by a factor of 10.     

Low density polyethylene composites containing cellulose pulp fibers

Unbleached and bleached Kraft cellulose pulp fibers modified with a long chain carboxylic acid, i.e. oleic acid in cold plasma conditions have been used as reinforcements in low density polyethylene (LDPE). The purpose of the modification is to enhance the interfacial adhesion between cellulose and matrix and to increase the dispersability. Composites containing up to 10 wt.% of untreated and modified cellulose pulp fibers with LDPE were prepared by melt mixing. The samples were characterized by processing behavior, mechanical and rheological properties, SEM, contact angle measurements, TGA and DSC. It was found that when the modified pulp fibers were incorporated into composites matrix, most of the properties have been improved.     

Characteristic impact resistance model analysis of cellulose nanofibril-filled polypropylene composites

Notched and unnotched Izod impact strength of cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) and microfibrillated cellulose (MFC)-filled impact modified polypropylene (PP) composites were measured and compared with microcrystalline cellulose (MCC)-filled composites. An Izod impact fracture initiation resistance theory was formulated and a characteristic impact resistance model was developed to evaluate the unique impact characteristics of cellulose nanofibril-filled PP composites. As filler loading increased CNF and MFC-filled composites showed higher characteristic impact resistance than MCC-filled ones. Among the cellulose fillers used in this study, CNF were found to be the most resistant of the three materials tested in terms of characteristic impact resistance. Even though impact resistance in not the only evaluation tool, characteristic impact resistance is an evaluation tool used to determine the material’s unique and hidden impact characteristics. The characteristic impact resistance model is useful for analysis of the impact behavior of any polymer composite material. It was also found that impact modified PP used in this study is more fracture resistant, but more crack sensitive, than conventional PP.     

Mechanical properties of glass fibre reinforced polypropylene disks produced by rotating,expansion and compression injection moulding

A special mould (RCEM, rotation, compression and expansion mould) intended for inducing complex stress fields during the filling stage of injection moulding was used to manipulate the microstructure of a short fibre reinforced polypropylene. Centred gated discs were injection moulded with different filling sequences (stationary, expansion, compression, expansion with continuous rotation and compression with continuous rotation). The mechanical behaviour of the mouldings was characterized in tensile and flexural loadings on specimens cut at different locations along the flow length. Complete discs were also tested in 4-point support flexural test at low velocity and at impact. The respective results are analysed and discussed in terms of the developed fibre orientation morphology.     

Enhanced properties of lignin-based biodegradable polymer composites using injection moulding process

Composites from polybutylene succinate (PBS) and lignin-based natural material were fabricated using a melt mixing process. The effects of lignin material and polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate (PMDI) compatibilizer on the properties of composites were investigated. Incorporation of 65% lignin material into PBS was achieved with an improvement in the tensile and flexural properties of composites. Incorporation of 1% PMDI in 50% lignin filled composites enhanced the tensile, flexural and impact strength simultaneously. Heat deflection temperature (HDT) of the virgin plastic also increased with lignin and PMDI incorporation. Improved interfacial adhesion was observed from SEM micrographs of the compatibilized composites.     

Novel polypropylene–cellulose composites using polyethylenimine as coupling agent

Novel cellulose reinforced polypropylene composites were obtained using polyethylenimine (PEI) as a coupling agent. Samples of bleached eucalyptus Kraft pulp were sprayed with aqueous solutions of PEI and extruded with isotactic polypropylene, and the tensile properties of the resulting composites were measured. The use of PEI as a coupling agent allows significant increases of both tensile strength and elongation at break. In order to understand the nature of the coupling action of PEI, the composite materials were studied using scanning electron microscopy and diffuse reflectance FTIR spectroscopy. The analysis reveals that the amine groups of PEI react with carbonyl and carboxyl groups, produced during the processing of the composites at elevated temperatures, to form imines and amides. These strong bonds, generated in the interfacial region of the composite, contribute to explain the coupling action of PEI.     

Extrusion and mechanical properties of highly filled cellulose fibre–polypropylene composites

This study focused on manufacturing of highly filled cellulose fibre–polypropylene composites and evaluation of the mechanical properties of the composites. Cellulose fibre reinforced polypropylene composites with up to 60 wt% of fibres with and without coupling agent were manufactured by extrusion. In order to achieve consistent feeding of the fibres into the extruder a pelletization technique was used where the fibres were pressed into pellets. Two commercial grades of cellulose fibres were used in the study, bleached sulfite and bleached kraft fibres. Fibre dimension measurements showed that the pelletization process and extrusion at high fibre loading caused the most severe fibre breakage. Flexural testing showed that increased fibre loading made the composites stiffer but reduced the toughness. Addition of maleic anhydride grafted coupling agent (MAPP) increased the stiffness and strength of the composites significantly. In general, there was no significant difference in the mechanical properties between the composites with kraft and sulfite fibres. An interesting finding was that the flexural modulus and strength of the MAPP modified cellulose fibre–polypropylene composites were not higher than what has previously been reported for wood flour–polyolefin composites. Scanning electron microscopy showed that addition of coupling agent improved the interfacial adhesion between the fibres and polypropylene matrix.     

Mechanical behavior and microstructural analysis of sugarcane bagasse fibers reinforced polypropylene composites

The compression and injection molding processes were performed in order to evaluate the better mixer method for fiber (sugarcane bagasse, bagasse cellulose and benzylated bagasse) and matrix (polypropylene). The samples (composites and polypropylene plates) were cut and submitted to mechanical tests in order to measure flexural and tensile properties. The morphological and microstructural analyses of fracture surface and specimens from composites can be easily evaluated by microscopic techniques. The fracture surface was evaluated by SEM and selected specimens from composites were analyzed by reflected light in OM. The better tested method for composites obtainment was the injection molding under vacuum process, by which composites were obtained with homogeneous distribution of fibers and without blisters. The mechanical properties show that the composites did not have good adhesion between fiber and matrix; on the other hand, the fiber insertion improved the flexural modulus and the material rigidity.     

Transcrystalline morphology and mechanical properties in polypropylene composites containing cellulose treated with sodium hydroxide and cellulase

To evaluate the transcrystalline effects caused by various fibers, which were untreated, or treated with sodium hydroxide and cellulase, isothermal crystallization was performed. It was observed that the untreated and cellulase-treated cellulose fibers (cellulose I) had a nucleating ability to transcrystallize at PP matrix. Especially, cellulose fibers treated with Sodium hydroxide (cellulose II) transcystallized at PP matrix. This result was different from other's. Cellulose fibers also transcrystallized at PP/MAH-PP matrix irrespective of the type of cellulose crystalline structure. In PP/MAH-PP/CELL system, MAH-PP was located around the fiber surface at initial crystallization time, but was gradually expelled from that with the increase of crystallization time, and existed at outer boundaries of transcrstalline region at the final crystallization time. These phenomena were confirmed by IR-IRS spectra. The tensile strength of PP/CELL and PP/MAH-PP/CELL composites decreased with the increase of isothermal crystallization time. Therefore, it is thought that transcrystallinity gives rise to negative effect of tensile strength.