Potential contribution of ethanol fuel to the transport sector of Pakistan

Pakistan is an energy-deficient country. The indigenous reserves of oil and gas are limited and the country is heavily dependent on the import of oil. The oil import bill is a serious strain on the country's economy and has been deteriorating the balance of payments situation. The country has become increasingly more dependent on fossil fuels and its energy security hangs on the fragile supply of imported oil that is subject to disruptions and price volatility. The transport sector has a 28% share in the total commercial energy consumption in Pakistan. About 1.15 million tonnes of gasoline was consumed by this sector during 2005–2006. The gasoline consumption in the transport sector is also a major source of environmental degradation especially in urban areas. Consequently, Pakistan needs to develop indigenous, environment-friendly energy resources, such as ethanol, to meet its transport sector's energy needs. Pakistan produces about 54 million tonnes of sugarcane every year. The estimated production potential of ethanol from molasses is about 500 million liters per annum. Ethanol can be used in the transport sector after blending with gasoline, in order to minimize the gasoline consumption and associated economical and environmental impacts. This paper presents the assessment of the potential contribution of ethanol in the transport sector of Pakistan. It is concluded that 5–10% of the annual gasoline consumption in transport sector could be met from ethanol by the year 2030 under different scenarios. About US$200–400 million per annum could be saved along with other environmental and health benefits by using gasol in the transport sector.     

An overview of biomass energy utilization in Vojvodina

The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an autonomous province in Serbia. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonia plain. Vojvodina is an energy-deficient province. Energy plays a pivotal role in socio-economic development by raising the standard of living. Biomass has been used by mankind as an energy source for thousands of years. Traditional fuels like firewood, dung and crop residues currently contribute a major share in meeting the everyday energy requirements of rural and low-income urban households in Vojvodina. Contribution of the renewable energy sources in the total consumption of energy in Vojvidina is less than 1%, i.e. it amounts to 280 KWh/year. Production of biodiesel in the year 2008 was 0.07 million tons, what is for 133% higher with respect to the production in the year 2007 (0.03 million tons). In Vojvodina, as the raw materials for bioethanol production are seen primarily sugar beet, corn, wheat surpluses, potato surpluses and waste potato, as well as the raw materials intended for these purposes grown on the uncultivated soils, such as hybrid broomcorn, Jerusalem artichoke and triticale. With introduction of new technologies for cultivation and collecting of biomass production of the electrical energy could be raised to 6.4 GWh/m² year, what, with retention of the contemporary consumption, would represent the significant 9% of the total consumption in the province. According to programme of realisation of energy strategy of Vojvodina/Serbia in the field of the renewable energy sources for to period till the year 2010 and its completion, till the year 2015, in Vojvodina could be created conditions for the employment of about 24,000 workers, i.e. 4000 employed for maintenance of the newly constructed plants, 17,000 employed on designing and manufacturing of plants and 3000 employed in auxiliary activities.     

Potential development of bioethanol production in Vojvodina

The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an Autonomous Province in Serbia, containing about 27% of its total population according to the 2002 Census. Contribution of renewable energy sources in total energy consumption of Vojvodina contemporary amounts to less than 1%, apropos 280 GWh/year. By combining of methods of introduction of new and renewable sources, systematic application of methods for increasing of energetic efficacy, as well as of introduction of the new technologies, percentage of contribution of the non-conventional energy sources in Vojvodina could be increased to as much as 20%. This paper presents the potential of development of bioethanol production in Vojvodina. Production of bioethanol on small farms can be successfully applied for processing of only 30 kg of corn per day, with obtaining of crude ethanol in the so-called “brandy ladle” and use of lygnocellulosic agricultural wastes as an energy source. In a case of construction of a larger number of such plants, the only possible solution is seen in the principle of construction of the so-called “satellite plants”, which will on small farm produce crude ethanol, with obtaining and consumption of stillage for animal feeding, and consumption of agricultural wastes as energetic fuels. If stillage is to be used as feed in wet feeding, it is estimated that, because of restrictions established by the magnitude of animal farm, the upper limit of capacity of such enterprises that process is at some 10–15 tons of corn per day, and production of 3000–3500 hL of absolute ethanol per day. In such a case, for animal feeding necessary is to have herd with 1300–1700 of milking cows or 5000–25,000 heads of sheep and/or pigs. Technological model of separate grain processing ad bioethanol production from dextrose hydrolysates of starch is interesting for countries possessing plants for bioethanol production from molasses and plants for cereals processing into starch and dextrose hydrolysates of starch.     

Liquid biofuels potential and outlook in Iran

Iran’s diversity of terrain and climate enables cultivation of a variety of energy crops suitable for liquid biofuels production. In Iran, the easily and readily available biofuel feedstock today for production of bioethanol is molasses from sugar cane and sugar beet. There is also about 17.86 million tons of crops waste from which nearly 5 billion liters of bioethanol could be produced annually. This amount of bioethanol is sufficient to carry out E10 for spark ignition engine vehicles in Iran by 2026. There is also enormous potential for cultivation of energy plants such as cellulosic materials and algae. Iran has 7%of its area covered with forest products which are suitable sources for liquid biofuels such bioethanol and biodiesel. Iran also has a long tradition of fishing in Caspian Sea and Persian Gulf with about 3200 km coastline and on inland rivers. The produced fish oil and other plant oils such as palm tree, jatropha, castor plant and algae are suitable biodiesel feedstock. Out of 1.5 million tons of edible cooking oil consumed in Iran annually, about 20% of it can be considered as waste, which is suitable biodiesel feedstock.This quantity along with the other possible potential feedstock are favorable sources to carry out B10 step by step until 2026.     

交通运输业能耗现状及未来走势分析

低碳经济要求交通运输有效、合理地使用能源,优化配置各种交通工具,降低能耗。近年来,我国交通运输业能耗增长率总体上高于全社会能耗增长率,占全社会能耗比重基本维持在7.5%左右。各种运输方式的能耗主要集中在油耗上,2007年交通运输业汽煤柴3种油耗叠加在一起,占全社会油耗比重近70%。交通运输中电能利用效率较高,节电效果好于全社会,电耗占全社会电耗比重从2002年的2.07%降至2007年的1.63%,但占全国交通运输能耗比重仅10%左右,能耗结构不合理现象并未得到改善。2008年国家铁路单位运输工作量综合能耗比上年降低3.1%,2009年我国铁路电气化率达到41.9%,铁路能耗结构出现根本性改善和优化,开始转变为以电耗为主。公路运输油耗总量呈快速增长趋势,百吨公里油耗指标呈稳中略升态势,节能空间和潜能较大。水运(含港口)能耗2004年之前呈上升趋势,之后下降趋势明显,约占交通运输业总能耗的15%。民航每吨公里油耗从2002年的0.364kg降至2007年的0.309kg,航油消耗增长率基本维持在12%上下,有较为明显的减弱趋势。未来10年,我国交通运输能源消耗总量将进一步攀升,虽然能耗结构将得到一定程度优化,电耗比重会迅速增长,但由于公路能耗在交通运输能耗中占有绝对比重,故难以从根本上改善交通运输以油耗为主的结构特点。我国交通运输业应逐步调整到以铁路为主导的各种交通方式协调发展的模式上来,最大限度地降低运输业油耗在整个交通运输行业中的比重,"以电代油"。     

Life cycle analysis for bioethanol production from sugar beet crops in Greece

The main aim of this study is to evaluate whether the potential transformation of the existing sugar plants of Northern Greece to modern bioethanol plants, using the existing cultivations of sugar beet, would be an environmentally sustainable decision. Using Life Cycle Inventory and Impact Assessment, all processes for bioethanol production from sugar beets were analyzed, quantitative data were collected and the environmental loads of the final product (bioethanol) and of each process were estimated. The final results of the environmental impact assessment are encouraging since bioethanol production gives better results than sugar production for the use of the same quantity of sugar beets. If the old sugar plants were transformed into modern bioethanol plants, the total reduction of the environmental load would be, at least, 32.6% and a reduction of more than 2 tons of CO₂e/sugar beet of ha cultivation could be reached. Moreover bioethanol production was compared to conventional fuel (gasoline), as well as to other types of biofuels (biodiesel from Greek cultivations).     

Key prospects and major development of hydrogen and bioethanol production

Cheap Production of bioethanol from renewable lignocellulosic waste has the imperative potential to economically cut burgeoning world dependency on fossils while reducing net emission of carbon dioxide (CO₂), a principal greenhouse gas (GHGs). This paper highlights key benefits and status of bioethanol production technologies, aiming mainly on recent developments and its key potentials in Pakistan. Most sector of Pakistan economy heavily rely on the energy and power that is being produced using traditional approaches like from oil and hydel. However, the sedimentation in dams cut-down the energy generation and overwhelmed severe energy crisis that are witnessed since last decade. Thus, Pakistan must go to avail alternative sources of energy like hydro, biomass and solar so that energy security can be ensured to recover the tremendous loss of economy. Renewable biomass is abundantly available in Pakistan which can be used to produce bioethanol and electricity. Currently, 22 distilleries are producing the ethanol from sugar cane bagasse and out of these only 8 distillation units are producing motor fuel grade ethanol. The current bioethanol production of country is about 403,500 tons/year along with 2423 tons of biodegradable waste available in major cities. In addition, Pakistan produces 6.57, 0.5, 0.66, and 2.66 million tons of sugarcane, corn, rice, and wheat straw per annum, respectively. This biomass can produce 1.6 million liters of bioethanol which can produce approximately 38% of Pakistan's electricity annually. Despite having large potential, Pakistan is still producing a few volumes of ethanol from sugarcane bagasse. The production of bioethanol can be boosted using (I) pretreatment of agricultural biomass by alkali (II) enzymatic and bacteria-based hydrolysis of the biomass (III) post-hydrolysis using pressurized steam above 100 °C (IV) Fermentation of the biomass@ 7–10 h and (V) and (VI) distillation of bioethanol. This study recommends (1) increase R&D capacities mainly in the west and central regions of Pakistan, (2) initiate mega-projects to promote integrated bio-ethanol production at agriculture farms by providing 1/3 subsides, (3) purchase of bioethanol directly from the major agricultural farms, (4) produce bioethanol related manpower from the key research institutes as specified in this study.     

可持续发展前提下的中国石油市场研究

通过对可持续发展条件下的中国石油市场的研究,得出到2020年的我国原油的进口量,并据此建议业内开展用好1亿t进口原油的讨论。从石油安全的角度,还计算了必须设法取代进口原油的数量,建议利用广泛推广替代燃料的方法,达到降低进口原油数量的目标。     

Cleaner bioprocesses for promoting zero-emission biofuels production in Vojvodina

In this study, the policy, market conditions and food security of biomass energy sources are assessed for supplying the future needs of Vojvodina. The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an autonomous province in Serbia, containing about 27% of its total population according to the 2002 Census. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonia plain, in southeastern Europe. Vojvodina is an energy-deficient province. The incentives to invest human and financial resources in the research and development of cleaner bioprocesses are high, considering the benefits which might be achieved in terms of environment protection and manufacturing costs. In the near and medium tenu, the development of bioprocesses for waste recycling and resource recovery might be one of the most viable options, considering much research work has already been done. In Vojvodina, there are technological solutions that biofuels produced in a closed cycle, so that the quantity of waste reduced to a minimum. These solutions include the stillage (remainder after distillation) used for fattening cattle, and cattle excrement to produce biogas and manure as fertilizer. The energy required for the production of bioethanol is obtained combustion lignocelullose residual waste from the production of basic raw materials starch, or biogas. Ash from the burned biomass returned to soil as a source of minerals for plants and replacement of mineral fertilizer. Such a closed cycle is economical for small farms in Vojvodina.     

Modelling the transport sector fuel demand for developng economies

This paper concentrates on the transport sector of six developing countries with similar common denominators, namely Turkey, Thailand, Pakistan, Morocco, Tunisia and Malaysia. By using standard econometric techniques, we analyse the evolution of oil demand for road transport in these countries in relation to independent variables such as income, population, price of gasoline and diesel etc. Unlike the treatment in the present literature on the subject, gasoline and diesel consumption are estimated separately due to the high share of diesel in the total transport sector consumption. On the basis of the estimation over the period 1970–1990, on a country by country basis, we forecast the demand for these six countries until 2010. The results of this study indicate that the transport sector will be the driving force for energy and oil demand as part of economic growth in these developing countries. Its share in the future energy market structure is expected to grow. Consequently, the (pricing) policies of oil products in this sector have a crucial role for shaping rational economic and energy strategies within the framework of rising environmental concern.     

Importance of Asphaltite Deposits in Southeastern Anatolia

Native energy sources of Turkey are quite limited, and the country is heavily dependent on the import of primary energy from abroad. The demand for electrical energy has increased very rapidly in Turkey due to the ongoing industrialization process and high population growth. Energy consumption in Turkey has continually increased over the past years and reached 82.2 million tons of oil equivalent (Mtoe) in 2000. This figure is expected to continue to grow and reach 115.2 Mtoe in 2005 and 153.9 Mtoe in 2010. In spite of the availability of all types of energy resources in Turkey, 66% of energy consumption is met with imports, as energy production is not sufficient to satisfy the demand for consumption. The primary energy sources of Turkey are hard coal, lignite, asphaltite, bituminous schist, hydropower, oil, natural gas, nuclear, geothermal, solar, wood, and animal and plant wastes. The required electrical energy of Turkey is primarily met from thermal and hydraulic sources, but, in addition to these, in recent times, asphaltite deposits in the Southeastern Anatolia Region of Turkey, roughly 79.969 million tons are found in the Sirnak and Silopi areas, and are mainly consumed in the residential sectors for heating due to its high calorific value (2876–5536 kcal/kg), are becoming important for Turkey to generate electricity energy. With the aim of this, it is planned to produce electrical energy after 2006 with the asphaltite taken out from Sirnak and Silopi region.     

Situation and perspectives of waste biomass application as energy source in Serbia

The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an autonomous province in the Republic of Serbia. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonia plain. Vojvodina is an energy-deficient province. The average yearly quantity of the cellulose wastes in Vojvodina amounts to about 9 millions tons barely in the agriculture, and the same potential on the level of Serbia is estimated to almost 13 million tons. Only minor part of straw is utilized, and almost two-thirds are incinerated on fields owing to the problems during plowing under. The large sector in Serbia utilizes only about 15% of straw, while the individual one utilizes about 50% of straw and 20% of cornstalks. Environment pollutions, abandonment of the utilization of at least of one-third of the yield and extermination of the natural resources, primarily of humus, represent very adverse results of such procedures. Main problems with respect to the profitable usage of straw and other post-harvest residues are high expenses of their collection (collecting, balling or some other manner of compression), transportation from production- to the usage cites, as well as their handling and storaging. The agricultural production in Serbia should be based on the system of farms. For the efficient farming, it is obvious to organize life of producer and of his family immediately close to the production capacities. For the agriculture development, it is obvious to create a system of premiums, efficient crediting and the elaborated tax system that could create a basis for the certitude of work, confidence and constant growth of production, together with the mentioned and other measures. As the result of the activities oriented to substitution of the classical energents with energy obtained from biomass, farm that is in a higher degree energetically independent should be created. In such case, farms should apply the basic principles of the cleaner manufacturing, as an integral part of the concept of the sustainable development.     

Future trends of bioethanol co-production in Serbian sugar plants

Due to the reduction of the economic support for refined sugar efforts have been made to find new ways of using sugar beet outside food industry. This paper investigates the possibilities of introducing bioethanol co-production in Serbian sugar plants. Research shows current state of Serbian sugar industry and technical aspects of bioethanol co-production in sugar plants. These results represent important step toward mass production of bioethanol in Serbian factories. The main goals of introducing the concept of sugar and bioethanol coproduction would be efficient use of available resources for the production of energy, reduction of greenhouse gases emission, decreased dependence on import and creation of new jobs. Besides that, it would provide flexibility in terms of variation of produced quantities of sugar and ethanol, depending on the conditions prevailing on the market.     

Assessing of energy policies based on Turkish agriculture:: current status and some implications

In this study, the current energy status of Turkey and the effects of national energy policies on Turkish agricultural support policies are discussed for both current and future requirements. Turkey is an energy-importing country producing 30 mtoe (million tons of oil equivalent) energy but consuming 80 mtoe. The energy import ratio of Turkey is 65–70% and the majority of this import is based on petroleum and natural gas. Furthermore, while world energy demand increases by 1.8% annually, Turkey’s energy demand increases by about 8%. Although energy consumption in agriculture is much lower than the other sectors in Turkey, energy use as both input and output of agricultural sector is a very important issue due to its large agricultural potential and rural area. Total agricultural land area is 27.8 million hectares and about 66.5% of this area is devoted for cereal production. On the other hand, Turkey has over 4 million agricultural farm holdings of which 70–75% is engaged in cereal production. Machinery expenses, mainly diesel, constitute 30–50% of total variable expenses in cereal production costs. It is observed that energy policies pursued in agriculture have been directly affected by diesel prices in Turkey. Therefore, support policy tools for using diesel and electricity in agriculture are being pursued by the Turkish government.     

China's oil use, 1990–2008

Over the past two decades, China's oil demand has risen steeply. In 1990, it was only about 25% higher than that of 1978, the year economic reform was introduced. By 2008, it had reached 396.0 million tons, roughly four times the 1978 level, making China the second largest oil user worldwide. The country became a net oil importer in 1993, and between 1993 and 2008, its net import dependency—a yardstick for energy security—soared from 7.5% to 50.0%. China's increased demand for oil has made the country a global energy player of critical importance. Although the literature on the global implications of China's oil use has proliferated, relatively few studies have attempted to examine “how China uses oil.” Hence, this study covers every oil-consuming facility and sector in China, exploring the patterns of, and factors involved in, oil demand by power plants, oil refineries, heat plants and, gas-works, and industrial, transport, agricultural, household and commercial sectors. It concludes that in virtually all sectors in China, oil demand will grow, with transport and industry leading the way.     

Energy,environmental and economic effects of Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS) in a Developing Country

This paper analyses the potential of renewable energy for power generation and its energy, environmental and economic implications in Pakistan, using a bottom up type of long term energy system based on the MARKAL framework. The results show that under a highly optimistic renewable portfolio standard (RPS) of 80%, fossil fuel consumption in 2050 would be reduced from 4660 PJ to 306 PJ, and the GHG emissions would decrease from 489 million tons to 27 million tons. Nevertheless, price of the electricity generation will increase significantly from US$ 47/MWh under current circumstances (in the base case) to US$ 86/MWh under RPS80. However the effects on import dependency, energy-mix diversity, per unit price of electricity generation and cost of imported fuels indicate that, it may not be desirable to go beyond RPS50. Under RPS50 in 2050, fuel consumption of the power sector would reduce from 21% under the base case to 9% of total fossil fuels supplied to the country. It will decrease not only GHG emission to 170 million tons but also will reduce import dependency from 73% under the base case to 21% and improve energy diversity mix with small increase in price of electricity generation (from US$ 47/MWh under the base case to US$ 59/MWh under RPS 50).     

Oil consumption and CO2 emissions in China's road transport: current status,future trends,and policy implications

With the rapid economic growth in China, the Chinese road transport system is becoming one of the largest and most rapidly growing oil consumers in China. This paper attempts to present the current status and forecast the future trends of oil demand and CO₂ emissions from the Chinese road transport sector and to explore possible policy measures to contain the explosive growth of Chinese transport oil consumption. A bottom-up model was developed to estimate the historical oil consumption and CO₂ emissions from China's road transport sector between 1997 and 2002 and to forecast future trends in oil consumption and CO₂ emissions up to 2030. To explore the importance of policy options of containing the dramatic growth in Chinese transport oil demand, three scenarios regarding motor vehicle fuel economy improvements were designed in predicting future oil use and CO₂ emissions. We conclude that China's road transportation will gradually become the largest oil consumer in China in the next two decades but that improvements in vehicle fuel economy have potentially large oil-saving benefits. In particular, if no control measures are implemented, the annual oil demand by China's road vehicles will reach 363 million tons by 2030. On the other hand, under the low- and high-fuel economy improvement scenarios, 55 and 85 million tons of oil will be saved in 2030, respectively. The scenario analysis suggests that China needs to implement vehicle fuel economy improvement measures immediately in order to contain the dramatic growth in transport oil consumption. The imminent implementation is required because (1) China is now in a period of very rapid growth in motor vehicle sales; (2) Chinese vehicles currently in the market are relatively inefficient; and (3) the turnover of a fleet of inefficient motor vehicles will take a long time.     

从汽柴油消费变化预测我国中长期石油需求

我国石油消费需求不断增长,2012年达到5.03×108t,石油对外依存度从2009年超过国际警戒线达到52%以来持续提高,已逼近60%。影响石油消费的主要因素包括国民经济发展水平、城镇化率、汽车保有量、非石油能源及节能技术等,其中中长期内对我国石油消费影响较大的是国民经济发展水平、汽车保有量及城镇化趋势。采用主成分分析法,预测我国2020年、2030年汽柴油消费量合计分别为31593×104t和34718×104t,按照汽柴油消费量合计占石油消费总量的55%计算,2020年、2030年的石油消费量分别为5.7×108t和6.3×108t。届时我国每年至少需要进口石油3.7×108t以上,对外依存度将高达65%。鉴于此,建议应大力发展和鼓励使用节能型(低能耗)汽车及新能源汽车,逐步降低汽车保有量增幅,并高效有序地发展公共交通;同时有序调整炼油厂装置结构,提高优质汽柴油调合组分比例;另外,加快发展替代能源和替代燃料是有效降低石油消费需求增幅,提高能源安全保障能力的重要措施之一。     

Exergy analysis of energy utilization in the transportation sector in China

As an emerging approach for unified resource accounting and energy-utilization assessment for the transportation sector, the exergy method to embody the second law of thermodynamics is investigated and applied to the energy-utilization assessment of the Chinese transport sector from 1978 to 2002. The exergy consumed by the sector in 2000 was 3.3 times that in 1978. The exergy of the oil consumed by transportation accounted for 30.5% of the total oil consumption in the whole country up to 2000, almost equal to the exergy of the net oil import. In terms of the exergy consumption intensity, taken as the exergy consumption per Converted Turnover, proposed to assess the overall effectiveness of the system, and conventional exergy efficiency to reflect the technical performance of involved transport vehicles, both the energy-utilization effectiveness and efficiency of the sector have been declining generally. Waterways transport was proved the most effective one, and railways, highways and civil aviation were the second, third and fourth, respectively. The historical evolution and structural variation of energy use in terms of the total exergy consumption, exergy efficiency and exergy consumption intensity are revealed and explored against drastic background transitions in related policies and socioeconomics.     

Biomass energy in Vojvodina: Market conditions,environment and food security

In this study, the policy, market conditions and food security of biomass energy sources are assessed for supplying the future needs of Vojvodina. The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an autonomous province in Serbia, containing about 27% of its total population according to the 2002 Census. It is located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonia plain, in southeastern Europe.Vojvodina is an energy-deficient province. Vojvodina also has a large potential for renewable energy, especially energy from biomass (biodiesel and bio-ethanol). The lack of knowledge about renewable energy technologies by most policy-makers, potential consumers, and energy firm managers has played against renewable energy developments. The environmental impacts of programs that encourage biofuel production, farmland land requirements and the impacts on food production are also discussed, considering the life cycle analysis (LCA) as a tool.It is concluded that the rise in the use of biofuels is inevitable and that international cooperation, regulations and certification mechanisms must be established regarding the use of land, the mitigation of environmental and social impacts caused by biofuel production. It is also mandatory to establish appropriate working conditions and decent remuneration for workers of the biofuels production chain.