Distribution of the heat transfer coefficient in convection reflow oven

Nowadays reflow ovens apply forced convection heating with nozzle-matrix blower system which generates numerous heater gas streams. In these types of ovens the heat transfer coefficients of the gas streams determine mainly the efficiency of heating. In this paper a measurement method is discussed which can determine the heat transfer coefficient distribution under the nozzle-matrix of a convection reflow oven. During the experiments, temperature changes have been measured and the heat transfer coefficient has been calculated using the heat equation of the investigated reflow oven. In the first step, the heat transfer coefficient of the heater gas streams has been studied under the nozzle-matrix in function of height. In the second step, the heating efficiency of the nozzle-lines has been compared and the distribution of the heat transfer coefficient has been calculated. The results are confirmed by a theoretical model. It is also presented that how the contamination of the nozzles affects the heating efficiency of the reflow oven. This measuring method can be useful for monitoring the operation of the reflow oven, soldering failure prediction and measuring input parameters of thermal modeling.     

Evaluation of heating performances and associated variability of domestic cooking appliances (oven-baking and pan-frying)

By comparison with those in industry, domestic cooking processes are rarely studied with respect to heat transfer although they can drastically modify the quality of heated products. In order to compensate for this lack of information in the literature, the aim of this work was to propose test procedures to evaluate the variability of domestic appliance heating performances in the case of oven-baking and pan-frying. The measurements included the continuous recording of pan temperature during pan-frying using different types of hobs (electric, halogen, gas, induction) and pans; the continuous recording of air temperature and measurement of the convective heat transfer coefficient and equivalent radiative temperature during oven-baking using different types of ovens. The results revealed broad variations in heating conditions depending on the type of appliance used and on consumer behaviour. For pan-frying, it was shown that pan temperature varied constantly during heating. From an initial value of 200 °C and a given product load, it could fall to 150 °C or rise to 330 °C at medium or high heat, respectively. For oven-baking, heating was sometimes performed at an actual air temperature that differed considerably from the air temperature set on the oven. These measurements also showed relatively low convective heat transfer coefficient values, ranging from 6 W/m² K under free convection to 16 W/m² K under forced convection.     

300MW循环流化床锅炉屏式受热面传热系数计算及其变化规律

根据300MW循环流化床（CFB）锅炉现场测试数据并结合以往CFB锅炉传热系数的研究成果,建立了屏式受热面烟气侧的传热模型,包括辐射传热模型和对流传热半经验公式．利用该模型对某300MWCFB锅炉在94％锅炉最大连续蒸发量（BMCR）工况下炉膛内屏式受热面的传热系数进行了计算,分析了屏式受热面管间节距、炉膛温度、工质温度、壁面黑度及烟气速度等因素对传热系数的影响．结果表明：烟气速度、炉膛温度和壁面黑度对传热系数的影响较大,所建立的传热模型能够合理地反映主要因素对CFB锅炉屏式受热面传热的影响．     

Modeling of transient natural convection heat transfer in electric ovens

Prediction of transient natural convection heat transfer in vented enclosures has multiple applications such as understanding of cooking environment in ovens and heat sink performance in electronic packaging industry. The thermal field within an oven has significant impact on quality of cooked food and reliable predictions are important for robust design and performance evaluation of an oven. The CFD modeling of electric oven involves three-dimensional, unsteady, natural convective flow-thermal field coupled with radiative heat transfer. However, numerical solution of natural convection in enclosures with openings at top and bottom (ovens) can often lead to non-physical solutions such as reverse flow at the top vent, partly a function of initialization and sometimes dependent on boundary conditions. In this paper, development of a physics based robust CFD methodology is discussed. This model has been developed with rigorous experimental support and transient validation of this model with experiments show less than 3% discrepancy for a bake cycle. There is greater challenge in simulating a broil cycle, where the fluid inside the cavity is stably stratified and is also highlighted. A comparative analyses of bake and broil cycle thermal fields inside the oven are also presented.     

Heat Transfer Analysis of a Microspherical Particle in the Slip Flow Regime by Considering Variable Properties

In order to investigate how far the temperature-dependent fluid properties and characteristic length influence the drag coefficient and the heat flux, a three-dimensional simulation study for a slip flow around an unconfined microspherical particle has been performed. Gas properties such as density, viscosity, conductivity, and mean free path were assumed to vary with temperature. Slip velocity and temperature jump at the gas particle interface were both treated numerically by imposition of the slip boundary conditions. The effects of variable gas properties and Knudsen number on momentum and heat transfer were also taken into account. It was concluded that for microflows with high heat transfer rates, the constant fluid properties approximation is very crude. In addition, the slip velocity and temperature jump affect the heat transfer in opposite ways: a large slip on the wall increases the convection along the surface, whereas a large temperature jump decreases the heat transfer by reducing the temperature gradient at the wall. Therefore, neglecting temperature jump will result in the overestimation of the heat transfer coefficient.     

节流型微通道换热特性研究

为研究节流型微通道换热特性,设计并加工制作了突缩突扩结构的微通道实验件。采用控制变量法控制改变加热电压、质量流量、入口温度,通过实验数据对比分析研究了影响节流型微通道对流换热的规律。研究结果表明:随着质量流量的增加,微通道蒸发器的对流传热系数不断减小;随着雷诺数的增大努谢尔数不断增大,对流换热效果比较明显。     

Heat transfer modelling of spherical particles subject to heating in a fluidized bed

This paper presents an analytical model for analyzing transient heat transfer between a brick particle and air flow during heating in a fluidized bed combustor. Both experimental and theoretical studies were carried out. The experimental investigation provided the temperature distributions at the centers of the spherical particles during heating. These data were presented in the dimensionless form and were compared with the results of the present analytical model. The theoretical investigation included two cases: e.g. Case 1 considered that the surface heat transfer coefficient is only the convection heat transfer coefficient; Case 2 also considered that the surface heat transfer coefficient is the sum of the convection and radiation heat transfer coefficients. Better agreement was found between the experimental data and the theoretical Case 2. The results of this study show that there is a dominant effect of the radiation heat transfer on the temperature distribution.     

Natural convection heat transfer of high temperature gas in an annulus between two vertical concentric cylinders

Water cooling panels have been adopted as the vessel cooling system of the High Temperature Engineering Test Reactor (HTTR) to cool the reactor core indirectly by natural convection and thermal radiation. In order to investigate the heat transfer characteristics of high temperature gas in a vertical annular space between the reactor pressure vessel and cooling panels of the HTTR, we carried out experiments and numerical analyses on natural convection heat transfer coupled with thermal radiation heat transfer in an annulus between two vertical concentric cylinders with the inner cylinder heated and the outer cylinder cooled. In the present experiments, Rayleigh number based on the height of the annulus ranged from 2.0 × 10⁷ to 5.4 × 10⁷ for helium gas and from 1.2 × 10⁹ to 3.5 × 10⁹ for nitrogen gas. The numerical results were in good agreement with the experimental ones regarding the surface temperatures of the heating and cooling walls. As a result of the experiments and the numerical analyses, the heat transfer coefficient of natural convection coupled with thermal radiation was obtained as functions of Rayleigh number, radius ratio, and the temperatures and emissivities of the heating and cooling wall surfaces. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Heat Trans Asian Res, 34(5): 293–308, 2005; Published online in Wiley InterScience ( www.interscience.wiley.com ). DOI 10.1002/htj.20070     

Cooling Augmentation with Microchanneled Structures

Experiments were conducted to investigate the heat transfer characteristics and cooling performance of subcooled liquid, water, flowing through rectangular cross-section microchanneled structures machined on a stainless steel plate. Heat transfer or flow mode transition was observed when the heating rate or wall temperature was increased. This transition was found to be suggestively induced by the variation in liquid thermophysical properties due to the significant rise of liquid temperature in the microstructures. The influence of such parameters as liquid velocity, subcooling, property variation, and microchannel geometric configuration on the heat transfer behavior, cooling performance and the heat transfer and liquid flow mode transition were also investigated. The experiments indicated that both slngle-phase forced convection and flow boiling characteristics were quite different from those in normal-sized tubes and the heat transfer was obviously intensified.     

Saturated flow boiling heat transfer of R-410A and associated bubble characteristics in a narrow annular duct

Experiments are conducted here to investigate how the channel size affects the R-410A saturated flow boiling heat transfer and associated bubble characteristics in a horizontal narrow annular duct. The gap of the duct is fixed at 1.0 and 2.0 mm in this study. The measured data indicate that the saturated flow boiling heat transfer coefficient increases with increasing refrigerant mass flux and saturated temperature and with a decrease in the gap size. Besides, raising the imposed heat flux can cause a significant increase in the boiling heat transfer coefficient. The results from the flow visualization show that the mean diameter of the bubbles departing from the heating surface decreases slightly with increasing refrigerant mass flux and saturated temperature. Moreover, the bubble departure frequency increases at reducing duct size and increasing mass flux. And at a high imposed heat flux many bubbles generated from the cavities in the heating surface tend to merge together to form big bubbles. Meanwhile, comparisons of the present heat transfer data for R-410A with R-407C and R-134a in the same duct and with some existing correlations are conducted. Furthermore, an empirical correlation for the present R-410A saturated flow boiling heat transfer data is proposed.     

Natural convection heat transfer in a circular enclosure

Natural convection heat transfer in a circular enclosure, one half of which was heated and the other half of which was cooled, was investigated experimentally, focusing on the effect of the inclination angle. The experiments were carried out with water. Flow and temperature field were visualized by using the aluminum and liquid-crystal suspension method. The results show that with downward heating the heat transfer coefficient increased as the inclination angle of the boundary between the heating wall and the cooling wall approached the vertical. But with upward heating, the heat transfer coefficient showed minimal change, exhibiting a small peak value when the inclination angle was γ ˜ –45°. The heat transfer coefficient of a flat circular enclosure was estimated from the circular enclosure's heat transfer coefficient. These results can be explained by the obtained flow and temperature fields. © 1999 Scripta Technica, Heat Trans Asian Res, 28(2): 152–163, 1999     

Saturated flow boiling heat transfer and associated bubble characteristics of R-134a in a narrow annular duct

Experiments are conducted here to investigate how the channel size affects the saturated flow boiling heat transfer and associated bubble characteristics of refrigerant R-134a in a horizontal narrow annular duct. The gap of the duct is fixed at 1.0 and 2.0 mm in this study. The measured heat transfer data indicate that the saturated flow boiling heat transfer coefficient increases with a decrease in the gap of the duct. Besides, raising the imposed heat flux can cause a significant increase in the boiling heat transfer coefficients. However, the effects of the refrigerant mass flux and saturated temperature on the boiling heat transfer coefficient are milder. The results from the flow visualization show that the mean diameter of the bubbles departing from the heating surface decreases slightly at increasing R-134a mass flux. Moreover, the bubble departure frequency increases at reducing duct size mainly due to the rising shear stress of the liquid flow, and at a high imposed heat flux many bubbles generated from the cavities in the heating surface tend to merge together to form big bubbles. Correlation for the present saturated flow boiling heat transfer data of R-134a in the narrow annular duct is proposed. Additionally, data for some quantitative bubble characteristics such as the mean bubble departure diameter and frequency and the active nucleation site density are also correlated.     

锅炉热力计算中传热系数类库的实现

通过对烟气、空气和水蒸汽的物性参数进行拟合，直接采用烟气、蒸汽侧对流传热系数公式计算对流换热系数，进一步实现锅炉对流受热面的传热系数类库编制，从而可以不再采用传统的查图求取的方法，提高计算的精度和效率。     

粗糙圆管内超临界航空煤油湍流换热特性分析

给出了国产航空煤油RP-3的三组分热物性替代燃料模型。采用k-ε湍流模型结合增强壁面处理的方法对超临界压力下航空煤油RP-3在圆形粗糙冷却通道中的流动与换热过程进行数值研究。分析了粗糙元形状、高度以及间高比等因素对其超临界流动和传热特性的影响规律,探究了人为粗糙度强化超临界航空煤油换热的机理。结果表明,人为设置粗糙元能使壁面附近产生局部回流区和旋涡结构,强化煤油与受热壁面间的对流换热。通过合理布置粗糙元结构,能大幅降低圆形冷却通道的壁面温度,有效抑制航空煤油的超临界传热恶化现象的发生。     

900MW超临界塔式锅炉的技术特点

介绍了外高桥电厂二期900MW超临界塔式锅炉的基本情况。锅炉采用水平布置的对流受热面及螺旋水冷壁，能减少水冷壁的面积且受热均匀，可进行过热器及再热器的酸洗甚至取消冲管，有利于解决固体颗粒侵蚀（SPE）问题，对流受热面传热均匀且具有较高的传热利用系数和材料安全裕度，具有相当低的对流受热面磨损率和较低的烟风系统阻力，尤其是辐射（蒸发）和对流受热面比例的任意性，特别有利于高效超临界技术的发展。锅炉采用燃烧器分组，双一次风喷嘴和设置偏置风和燃尽风等技术，降低了燃烧中心温度峰值和NOX的生成，在降低燃烧区域热负荷的同时却提高了整个辐射受热面的平均热负荷，降低了水冷壁及炉膛出口的结焦风险。     

Saturated flow boiling heat transfer of R-407C and associated bubble characteristics in a narrow annular duct

Experiments are conducted here to investigate how the channel size affects the R-407C saturated flow boiling heat transfer and associated bubble characteristics in a horizontal narrow annular duct. The gap of the duct is fixed at 1.0 and 2.0 mm in this study. The measured data indicate that the saturated flow boiling heat transfer coefficient increases with a decrease in the duct gap. Besides, raising the imposed heat flux can cause a significant increase in the boiling heat transfer coefficients. However, the effects of the refrigerant mass flux and saturated temperature on the boiling heat transfer coefficient are milder. The results from the flow visualization show that the mean diameter of the bubbles departing from the heating surface decreases noticeably at increasing R-407C mass flux. Moreover, the bubble departure frequency increases at reducing duct size and at a high imposed heat flux many bubbles generated from the cavities in the heating surface tend to merge together to form big bubbles. Meanwhile comparison of the present heat transfer data for R-407C with R-134a in the same duct and with some existing correlations is conducted. Furthermore, correlation for the present R-407C saturated flow boiling heat transfer data is proposed. Additionally, the present data for some quantitative bubble characteristics such as the mean bubble departure diameter and frequency and the active nucleation site density are also correlated.     

Heat transfer of a non-Newtonian fluid (Carbopol aqueous solution) in transitional pipe flow

An experimental study of the forced convection heat transfer for non-Newtonian fluid flow in a pipe is presented. We focus particularly on the transitional regime. A wall boundary heating condition of heat flux is imposed. The non-Newtonian fluid used is Carbopol (polyacrylic acid) aqueous solutions. Detailed rheology as well as the variation of the rheological parameters with temperature are reported. Newtonian and shear thinning fluids are also tested for comparative purposes. The characterization of the flow and the thermal convection is made via the pressure drop and the wall temperature measurements over a range of Reynolds number from laminar to turbulent regime. Our measurements show that the non-Newtonian character stabilizes the flow, i.e., the critical Reynolds number to transitional flow increases with shear thinning and yield stress. The heat transfer coefficients are given and compared with heat transfer laws for different regime flows. Details when the heat transfer coefficient loses rapidly its local dependence on the Reynolds number are analyzed.     

航天器密封舱降压法抑制自然对流的数值研究

航天器密封舱地面试验中常利用降压法来抑制自然对流的影响,但是降压比的选择往往取决于一些未知参数,使得自然对流的抑制得不到保证.本文建立了某一载人航天器密封舱流动换热的稳态数值模型,通过对比研究地面试验与空间状态不同通风量下流动换热的变化情况,综合考虑人体舒适度、消除自然对流影响和能耗三方面,给出了密封舱最佳通风量.通过对比研究密封舱内不同气体压力条件下地面与空间条件的对流换热系数与温度分布情况,给出了可以忽略自然对流影响的临界压力及对应的Gr/Re2数.     

理想流体对流传热问题的理论解

研究理想流体受迫对流传热和自然对流传热问题的理论解。采用流体无垂直于壁面法线方向运动(即无穿透)的条件取代黏性流体在壁面无滑移条件，解决了流体在边界上有滑移时计算对流传热系数的困难，给出了理想流体与平壁受迫对流传热、理想流体与竖直壁面自然对流传热和理想流体在管内受迫对流传热的理论解。结果表明：理想流体的对流传热与黏性流体同样存在着热边界层。在外部流动的情况下，无论受迫对流传热还是自然对流传热，对流传热系数都与流体的导热系数、密度和比热三乘积的二分之一次方成正比。在管内受迫对流的情况下，当无因次长度大于0．05时，局部Nu和界面无因次温度分布都不再变化，对于恒热流边界条件，Nu等于8，截面无因次平均温度等于2；对于恒壁温边界条件，Nu等于5．782，截面无因次平均温度等于2．316。     

Radiative slab heating analysis for various fuel gas compositions in an axial-fired reheating furnace

A transient radiative slab heating analysis was performed to investigate the effect of various fuel mixtures on the performance of an axial-fired reheating furnace. The various fuel mixtures tested were assumed to be attained by mixing COG (coke oven gas) and BFG (blast furnace gas), which are the two main byproduct gases found in the integrated steel mill industry. The numerical prediction of radiative heat transfer was calculated using an FVM radiation solving method, which is a well-known and efficient method for curvilinear coordinates. The WSGGM (weighted sum of gray gas model) was also adopted to calculate the radiative heat transfer in composition dependent media. The entire furnace was divided into fourteen sub-zones to calculate the radiative thermal characteristics of the furnace without flow field calculations. Each sub-zone was assumed to have homogeneous media and wall temperatures. All of the medium and wall temperatures were computed by calculating the overall heat balance using some relevant assumptions. The overall heat balance was satisfied when the net heat input equaled the three sources of heat loss in each sub-zone, wall loss, skid loss, and slab heating loss.