Waste to energy – An evaluation of the environmental impact

The thermal treatment of waste with the heat recovery (Waste to Energy – WTE) provides us with clean and reliable energy in the form of heat as well as power. This has contributed to primary energy savings in conventional utility systems. Impact of WTE regarding the environmental issue is quantified in this paper. The evaluation focuses on the calculation of primary energy savings. A novel methodology is proposed. Then an assessment of the emission rate is made and results discussed. Real up-to-date municipal solid waste incinerator with nominal capacity 100 kt/y is involved in a case study. Benefit of its operation has been compared with other up-to-date utility concepts.     

Trends of energy efficiency in Finnish road freight transport 1995–2009 and forecast to 2016

A framework for modeling and analyzing the energy efficiency of road freight transport is presented in this paper. This framework is tested by using the data from the Finnish Goods Transport by Road statistics. The data was enhanced by calculating the fuel consumption for each trip in the data. To calculate this, weight-fuel consumption functions were estimated for each Euro-class vehicles and road type. This is a new method for analyzing the energy efficiency of road freight transport and it could be applied also in other countries gathering freight transport data with continuous company surveys. The analysis show that the energy efficiency of road freight transport in Finland improved during 1995–2002, but has declined since. The major drivers in the development have been the changes in the level of empty running and vehicle fuel efficiency. Extrapolating current statistical trends of factors that influence the energy efficiency show that the target set by the Finnish government for improving energy efficiency by 9% until 2016 will not be achieved. However, the target is possible to be achieved by a combination of small changes to some determinants.     

Comprehensive evaluation of household indirect energy consumption and impacts of alternative energy policies in China by input–output analysis

Households consume a large amount of indirect energy through the consumption of goods and services. This fact makes the quantitative analysis of indirect household energy consumption the foundation of energy policy design. This paper improves the compilation method of energy input–output tables, and establishes a sequence of energy input–output tables for China. Based on these tables, the indirect energy consumption of both rural and urban households is calculated. Then, with economic data for the year of 2005, the adjusted input–output price model is applied to evaluate how the alternative energy policies impact production prices, consumption prices, and real income of rural and urban households through the mechanism of indirect energy consumption by using electricity as an example. This research has practical implications for Chinese economy. The integration of energy-efficiency improvements and energy prices increase serves as a means to achieve both economic and energy conservation goals, and may also have a positive effect on residents’ real income and a minimal effect on production prices.     

Food or fuel? What European farmers can contribute to Europe's transport energy requirements and the Doha Round

Farm support in higher income countries is a testament to the fundamental social and economic importance of agriculture, yet domestic efforts to support this sector can arouse multilateral discord in a world of global food markets. In this paper, we argue that the advent of biofuels offers a new opportunity for agriculture to contribute to society, and to do so in a way that reduces trade rivalry and improves energy security. Holding current agricultural production constant, we find that the EU has the potential to reduce oil imports between 6% and 28% by converting eligible agricultural crops into biofuels under two differing conversion scenarios. Further, 33% of food support could be removed with no net farm revenue loss, using the biofuel premia (compared with food value) of corn and rapeseed to compensate for subsidy reductions. These results can help overcome the current impasse in global trade negotiations by reconciling the needs of EU farmers with those who would gain from more liberal international trade.     

Improving households’ access to electricity and energy consumption pattern in Nigeria: Renewable energy alternative

Access to substantial quantity and quality energy infrastructures is essential to rapid and sustainable economic development. Access to modern energy services directly contributes to economic growth and poverty reduction through the creation of wealth. No country can develop and sustain beyond subsistence means without having at least minimum access to energy services for the larger portion of its population. The present study examines the households’ access to modern energy (electricity) services and pattern of energy consumption in Nigeria. It was found that the access to modern form of energy in the country is very low despite the country's abundant energy endowment. Greater proportions (over 40%) of Nigerian households do not have access to electricity and still depend largely on traditional forms of energy (e.g., firewood, kerosene, etc.) as energy sources. However, Nigeria is abundantly endowed with renewable energy resources. This can be significantly developed to generate modern and clean electricity to meet the yearning demand of its citizens without imposing serious hazard on the environment.     

Does FDI influence renewable energy consumption? An analysis of sectoral FDI impact on renewable and non-renewable industrial energy consumption

This study examines the link between foreign direct investment (FDI) and energy demand. FDI is a source of financing that allows businesses to grow. At the same time, FDI can be a source of innovation that promotes energy efficiency. Existing evidence on the impact of aggregate FDI inflows on energy consumption is scarce and inconclusive. In the current study, we disaggregate FDI inflows into mining, manufacturing, total services, and financial services components and examine the impact of these FDI flows on renewable – and non-renewable industrial energy – sources for 74 countries for the period 1985–2012. We employ a Blundell–Bond dynamic panel estimator to control for endogeneity and omitted variable biases in our panels. The results point broadly to an energy consumption-reducing effect with respect to non-renewable sources of energy and an energy consumption-augmenting effects with respect to renewable energy. We find that these effects vary in magnitude and significance by sectoral FDI.     

Cost-effective energy carriers for transport – The role of the energy supply system in a carbon-constrained world

The aim of this study is to examine how the options for producing electricity, fuels, and heat in a carbon-constrained world affect the cost-effectiveness of a range of fuels and propulsion technologies in the transportation sector. GET 7.0, a global energy system model with five end-use sectors, is used for the analysis. We find that an energy system dominated either by solar or by nuclear tends to make biofuels in plug-in hybrids cost-effective. If coal with carbon capture and storage (CCS) dominates the energy system, hydrogen cars, rather than plug-in hybrids tend to become cost-effective. Performing a Monte Carlo simulation, we then show that the general features of our results hold for a wide range of assumptions for the costs of vehicle propulsion technologies (e.g., batteries and fuel cells). However, sufficiently large changes in say the battery costs may overturn the impact of changes in the energy supply system, so that plug-in hybrid vehicles become cost-effective even if coal with CCS dominate the energy supply. We conclude that analyses of future energy carriers and propulsion technologies need to consider developments in the energy supply system.     

The role of hydrogen and fuel cells to store renewable energy in the future energy network – potentials and challenges

The penetration of renewable energy sources is expected to rapidly increase from 15% to 50% in 2050 due to their vital contribution to the global energy requirements, sustainability and quality of life in economical, environmental and health aspects. This huge rise highlights the necessity of development of energy storage systems, especially for intermittency renewable energies such as solar photovoltaic and wind turbine, in order to balance the energy network. In this study, renewable energy options including pumped hydro, pressurized air, flywheels, Li ion batteries, hydrogen and super-capacitors are compared based on a specific set of criteria. The criteria considered are energy/power density, ease of integration with the existing energy network, cost effectiveness, durability, efficiency and safety. Our study showed that storing renewable energy sources in the form of hydrogen through the electrolysis process is ranked as the most promising option considering the mentioned criteria. It brings about several benefits suggesting that hydrogen and fuel cells are promising contributors towards a more sustainable future, both in energy demand and environmental sustainability.     

Indicators of bioenergy-related certification schemes – An analysis of the quality and comprehensiveness for assessing local/regional environmental impacts

Bioenergy is receiving increasing attention because it may reduce greenhouse gas emissions, secure and diversify energy supplies and stimulate rural development. The environmental sustainability of bioenergy production systems is often determined through life-cycle assessments that focus on global environmental effects, such as the emission of greenhouse gases or air pollutants. Local/regional environmental impacts, e.g., the impacts on soil or on biodiversity, require site-specific and flexible options for the assessment of environmental sustainability, such as the criteria and indicators used in bioenergy certification schemes.In this study, we compared certification schemes and assessed the indicator quality through the environmental impact categories, using a standardized rating scale to evaluate the indicators. Current certification schemes have limitations in their representation of the environmental systems affected by feedstock production. For example, these schemes predominantly use feasible causal indicators, instead of more reliable but less feasible effect indicators. Furthermore, the comprehensiveness of the depicted environmental systems and the causal links between human land use activities and biophysical processes in these systems have been assessed. Bioenergy certification schemes seem to demonstrate compliance with underlying legislation, such as the EU Renewable Energy Directive, rather than ensure environmental sustainability. Beyond, certification schemes often lack a methodology or thresholds for sustainable biomass use. Lacking thresholds, imprecise causal links and incomplete indicator sets may hamper comparisons of the environmental performances of different feedstocks. To enhance existing certification schemes, we propose combining the strengths of several certification schemes with research-based indicators, to increase the reliability of environmental assessments.     

Seasonal relationship of peak demand and energy impacts of energy efficiency measures—a review of evidence in the electric energy efficiency programmes

While energy efficiency programmes traditionally focus on energy savings, there is also a policy interest in their impact on system peak demand. Examples include demand-side management, integrated resource planning and recent developments to integrate energy efficiency into forward capacity markets. However, there is only limited research on the relationship between peak demand impacts and overall energy savings from efficiency measures, although this relationship can have important bearings on efficiency programmes. This paper reviews utility efficiency programmes in nine jurisdictions in North America and analyses how the seasonal peak-energy relationship differs between commercial and industrial (C&I) and residential sectors, among efficiency measures. In terms of the seasonal difference in peak demand impacts, these programmes show that residential lighting and residential water heating can deliver greater peak savings in weekday early evening winter peak periods. By contrast, C&I lighting and residential appliances make higher peak savings in weekday afternoon summer peak periods. A seasonal difference is more significant in lighting, especially residential lighting, than other measures. The evidence from North America also suggests that space cooling in both sectors and C&I lighting may well make greater peak savings relative to non-peak impacts than other measures during summer peak periods, while in winter peak periods, residential lighting can achieve greater peak savings relative to non-peak impacts. This review highlights the significance of regional electricity use patterns along with climatic and regulatory conditions and indicates how further research may contribute to appropriate electricity demand reduction programme design and monitoring regimes in particular regions.     

Comparison of energy and material recovery of household waste management from the environmental point of view – Case Kaunas,Lithuania

The results of life cycle assessment of five different energy recovery-based waste management system options are presented. The system options were designed for the city of Kaunas, Lithuania. The Kaunas model was formed according to the Simple Integrated System Management concept developed at Lappeenranta University of Technology. CML2001 was selected as the method according to which the life cycle impact assessment profiles were compiled and analyzed.The results suggest that energy recovery from biowaste, paper and cardboard derived from households could be a more recommendable waste management option than material recovery of the fractions (composting of biowaste and recycling of paper and cardboard). The calculations were carried out with limited process information, and cannot thus be generalized in all parts.     

What are the energy and power consumption patterns of different types of built environment?

This paper outlines the current energy usage patterns of various sectors of activity within the built environment. It then leads on to identify drivers and barriers to how energy consumption within the built environment could be reduced in the future.     

On the physics of power,energy and economics of renewable electric energy sources – Part I

Environmental concerns have increasingly led to the installation of Renewable Energy Technologies (RETs) despite the fact that they are recognized as expensive. Innovative efforts within the area are beset with difficulties [1], and they are at risk of producing misdirected or insignificant improvements in terms of the cost effectiveness of total energy conversion systems. This paper investigates how RETs can be evaluated, in terms of economy and engineering solutions, by studying the fundamental physics of renewable energy sources and how it matches with the RETs. This match is described by the “Degree of Utilization”. The findings indicate that new innovations should focus on the possible number of full loading hours. RETs that are correctly matched to their energy source generate a higher amount of electric energy and have a higher potential of becoming more competitive. In cases where this aspect has been ignored, leading to relatively small degrees of utilization, it can be understood as an engineering mismatch between installed power, converted energy, and the fundamental physics of the renewable energy sources. Since there is a strong and possibly biased support for so-called mature RETs and already existing solutions, a clarification of how fundamental physical laws affect the cost of investments and payback of investments is needed. The present paper is part I out of II and it focuses on the difference between power and energy and the physics of different energy sources and their utilization.     

Are green hopes too rosy? Employment and welfare impacts of renewable energy promotion

In view of pressing unemployment problems, policy makers across all parties jump on the prospects of renewable energy promotion as a job creation engine which can boost economic well-being. Our analytical model shows that initial labor market rigidities in theory provide some scope for such a double dividend. However, the practical outcome of renewable energy promotion might be sobering. Our computable general equilibrium analysis of subsidized electricity production from renewable energy sources (RES-E) in Germany suggests that the prospects for employment and welfare gains are quite limited and hinge crucially on the level of the subsidy rate and the financing mechanism. If RES-E subsidies are financed by labor taxes, welfare and employment effects are strictly negative for a broad range of subsidy rates. The use of an electricity tax to fund RES-E subsidies generates minor benefits for small subsidy rates but these benefits quickly turn into significant losses as the subsidy rate exceeds some threshold value.     

Economic growth,urbanization and energy consumption — A provincial level analysis of China

As the largest developing country, with fast-paced economic growth, China's development has been characterized by a high degree of energy consumption, high level of heavy industry, international trade and urbanization progress. In this study, we extend the current literature by incorporating urbanization, energy consumption and international trade into a production function using a panel data set model over the period from 2001 to 2012. The results show that urbanization and capital are the major contributors to China's economic growth. Meanwhile, there exists a “U-shaped” relationship between urbanization and economic growth; that heavy industry exerts a significant negative effect on economic growth using system generalized methods of moments (GMM-sys) estimation methods; and the relationship between international trade and economic growth is mixed and no consistent results support the conclusion that the international trade promotes economic growth. Adjusting the industry and trade structure in economic growth is the priority for the policy makers.     

A liquefied energy chain for transport and utilization of natural gas for power production with CO2 capture and storage – Part 4: Sensitivity analysis of transport pressures and benchmarking with conventional technology for gas transport

A novel energy and cost effective transport chain for stranded natural gas utilized for power production with CO₂ capture and storage is developed. It includes an offshore section, a combined gas carrier and an integrated receiving terminal. In the offshore section, natural gas (NG) is liquefied to LNG by liquid carbon dioxide (LCO₂) and liquid inert nitrogen (LIN), which are used as cold carriers. In the onshore process, the cryogenic exergy in the LNG is utilized to cool and liquefy the cold carriers, LCO₂ and LIN. The transport pressures for LNG, LIN and LCO₂ will influence the thermodynamic efficiency as well as the ship utilization; hence sensitivity analyses are performed, showing that the ship utilization for the payload will vary between 58% and 80%, and the transport chain exergy efficiency between 48% and 52%. A thermodynamically optimized process requires 319 kWh/tonne LNG. The NG lost due to power generation needed to operate the LEC processes is roughly one third of the requirement in a conventional transport chain for stranded NG gas with CO₂ capture and sequestration (CCS).     

An energy efficient Swedish pulp and paper industry – exploring barriers to and driving forces for cost-effective energy efficiency investments

Despite the need for increased industrial energy efficiency, studies indicate that cost-effective energy efficiency measures are not always implemented, which is explained by the existence of barriers to energy efficiency. This paper investigates whether this holds for the Swedish pulp and paper industry, and if so, investigates the barriers inhibiting and the driving forces stressing cost-effective energy efficiency investments. By so, this case study covers about 2% of the EU-25 industrial end-use of energy. The overall results from a questionnaire show that there is an energy efficiency gap in the sector and that the largest barriers were technical risks such as risk of production disruptions, cost of production disruption/hassle/inconvenience, technology inappropriate at the mill, lack of time and other priorities, lack of access to capital, and slim organization. As regards the driving forces for energy efficiency, the highest ranked driving forces were cost reductions resulting from lower energy use, people with real ambition, long-term energy strategy, the threat of rising energy prices, the electricity certificate system, the PFE. The results show that many of the barriers and driving forces were not solely market-related, e.g., lack of time or other priorities, slim organization, other priorities for capital investments, lack of staff awareness, and long decision chains indicate that firm-specific barriers plays an important role. These barriers may not be overcome by market-related public policy instruments but is rather a consequence of how the energy issue is organized within the firms. The second and the third largest driving forces, people with real ambition and a long-term energy strategy further support this.

Energy,environmental and economic comparison of different powertrain/fuel options using well-to-wheels assessment,energy and external costs – European market analysis

The well-to-wheels assessment is widely used in the automotive sector to analyze the efficiency and competitiveness of different powertrain/fuel options. The paper proposes a global index that takes into account both the energy and environmental aspects on an uniform basis, through the assignment of the costs associated to the energy and to the pollutant emissions. The European market is analyzed and other pollutants (NO_x, PM and SO_x) are added to the traditional well-to-wheels evaluations (energy and GHG). The proposed well-to-wheels global index offers a useful place-list that takes into account both energy and environmental aspects and, at the current market conditions, it results that the energy cost prevails (70–85%) over the environmental costs, and among the analyzed external costs, the main contribution is due to the GHG emissions. Natural gas-derived fuels seem to be the most promising. The global index for battery electric vehicle from a European mix are closely linked to the driving range. Conventional biofuels are very critical at present, while significant improvement of the well-to-wheels global index is foreseen for when new generation biofuels will be mature (2030 forecast). In short, even though the proposed global index is not an exhaustive index, it could be a useful tool for decision makers.