意大利的节能和可再生能源激励机制

新能源与可再生能源产业是具有环境效益的弱势产业,在市场化过程中面临着诸多的障碍和问题,政府支持是新能源与可再生能源市场培育的原动力。不论是发达国家还是发展中国家,新能源与可再生能源的发展离不开政府的支持,如投融资、税收、补贴、市场渗透等一系列的优惠政策。文章介绍了意大利在节能和可再生能源方面的激励政策。     

Tradable energy efficiency certificates: the Italian experience

The Italian white certificates scheme took effect in January 2005. The command and control component of the scheme, i.e., the energy efficiency obligation, was introduced with the implementation of the first European directives on the liberalization of the electricity and natural gas market (Ministero dell’Industria, del commercio e dell’artigianato. Legislative Decree of 16th March 1999, n.79, 1999; Ministero dell’Industria, del commercio e dell’artigianato. Legislative Decree of 23rd May 2000, n. 164, 2000), in the form of a public service obligation (PSO) raised on distribution companies. The market-based component, the trading of energy efficiency certificates (EECs), was introduced by the government in mid-2001, together with the definition of the level of the obligation and of the other elements of the policy package. In the following three years the regulatory authority for electricity and gas (AEEG) designed the implementing technical and economic regulation governing the system through an extensive public consultation. During the same period, a revision of some of the basic elements of the scheme was also carried out, in order to take into account some institutional changes (i.e., new shared responsibilities between the federal government and regional administrations in the energy policy field), as well as some improvements suggested by the regulator. In December 2007, some components of the mechanism were updated on the basis of the results achieved and of the critical issues that emerged during its implementation (Ministero delle Attività Produttive (MSE). Ministerial Decree of revision and update of the Ministerial Decrees of 20the July 2004, 2007).

Methodologies for representing the road transport sector in energy system models

Energy system models are often used to assess the potential role of hydrogen and electric powertrains for reducing transport CO₂ emissions in the future. In this paper, we review how different energy system models have represented both vehicles and fuel infrastructure in the past and we provide guidelines for their representation in the future. In particular, we identify three key modelling decisions: the degree of car market segmentation, the imposition of market share constraints and the use of lumpy investments to represent infrastructure. We examine each of these decisions in a case study using the UK MARKAL model. While disaggregating the car market principally affects only the transition rate to the optimum mix of technologies, market share constraints can greatly change the optimum mix so should be chosen carefully. In contrast, modelling infrastructure using lumpy investments has little impact on the model results. We identify the development of new methodologies to represent the impact of behavioural change on transport demand as a key challenge for improving energy system models in the future.     

A wind-hydrogen energy storage system model for massive wind energy curtailment

With wind energy penetration rate increasing, wind energy curtailment turns severe in some wind farms nowadays and new wind farm construction trends to aggregate this situation. Therefore the need for massive energy storage technology such as “Power to gas” is growing. In this study, a model of integrating curtailed wind energy with hydrogen energy storage is established based on real time data in term of 10 min avg. throughout a whole year in a wind farm. Two wind/hydrogen production scenarios via water electrolysis are given and the influence exerted on payback period by electrolyser power and hydrogen price is talked in tandem as well as the model validity is specified in the conclusion section. Our results further stress the importance of hydrogen energy storage technology on addressing wind energy curtailment and disclose some regularities from an economical perspective.     

The rôle of renewable energy sources in the Italian agricultural system

Italy imports more than 83 per cent of its primary energy. In particular, the Italian agricultural sector imports 100 per cent of its primary energy needs. Today, an effort is being made towards a better mix of primary sources and towards reducing the country's dependence on imports, especially in this sector where there are considerable endogenous energy sources. Solar thermal energy and energy from biomass can be substituted for oil. The present paper analyses the end uses of energy in Italian agriculture and assesses the amount which can be substituted by solar thermal and biogas technologies. For each end use category, the benefits of renewable technologies are compared with the economics of non-renewable sources. The results of the analyses show that the most competitive technologies are biogas systems, passive solar systems (especially solar greenhouses) and energy-saving measures. Active solar systems are close to the threshold of competitiveness for low temperature heating, so that their penetration is very dependent on fuel prices and on the politics of financial subsidies.     

Optimised model for community-based hybrid energy system

Hybrid energy system is an excellent solution for electrification of remote rural areas where the grid extension is difficult and not economical. Such system incorporates a combination of one or several renewable energy sources such as solar photovoltaic, wind energy, micro-hydro and may be conventional generators for backup. This paper discusses different system components of hybrid energy system and develops a general model to find an optimal combination of energy components for a typical rural community minimizing the life cycle cost.The developed model will help in sizing hybrid energy system hardware and in selecting the operating options. Micro-hydro-wind systems are found to be the optimal combination for the electrification of the rural villages in Western Ghats (Kerala) India, based on the case study. The optimal operation shows a unit cost of Rs. 6.5/kW h with the selected hybrid energy system with 100% renewable energy contribution eliminating the need for conventional diesel generator.     

能源供需优化模型在北京市能源系统的应用

依据北京市“十一五”时期发展规划,立足于北京市目前能源消费现状,创建了能源供需优化模型,旨在满足能源需求、环境允许的前提下使得系统能源费用最小化。采用了区间线性优化方法,对已知上下界但其分布未知的参数用区间数表示,最后得出规划期的三个周期内八种能源的产出调入量以及各个周期的总费用,并对目前北京市能源消费中存在的问题提出了几点建议。     

Implications of high energy prices for energy system and emissions—The response from an energy model for Germany

Against the background of strongly increasing prices for primary energy carriers we examine how trends towards high energy prices could affect the development of the German energy system, the corresponding carbon dioxide emissions as well as costs. With the IKARUS bottom-up time-step model we look at a scenario with steadily increasing prices and a price shock scenario, both compared to a moderate price scenario. The results show that high prices lead to a significant reduction of the total primary energy supply and also structural changes of primary energy supply with less oil and natural gas and a noticeable increase of renewables. The corresponding cumulated CO₂ emission reduction for the period 2005–2030 is in the range of 830–1310 Mt or 4.1–6.4% as compared to the reference scenario. In the high price scenario there is a continuous additional decrease of energy demand and emissions while in the price shock scenario we find a temporary minimum around 2015 and subsequently a remarkable relaxation towards the reference scenario. Due to technical measures in the model the extra system costs caused by higher prices are reduced by 65–75 billion _€2000${€}_{2000}$ for the period 2005–2030.     

Geothermal energy and the environment: The global experience

The conflict between energy supply and the environment is one of the critical issues of our time, and geothermal energy, often touted as plentiful and environmentally benign, has received a measure of attention as one possible answer to the problem. Some environmental issues, however, have been encountered during the development of the world's geothermal resources and these have had an impact on the speed of development. The environmental problems at each of the world's geothermal generating stations are discussed in this paper.The significant environmental impacts include conflicts in land use, air pollution, subsidence, water pollution, induced seismicity, blowouts, and noise, and every country has encountered some difficulty with one or more of these problems. Development plans have been slowed by environmental concerns in some countries. In the U.S.A., this problem has been the emission of hydrogen sulfide; in Japan, land use in national parks plus waste-water disposal; in El Salvador, waste-water disposal. Other environmental impacts which have not had an appreciable effect on development plans include: waste-water disposal and subsidence in New Zealand, land use and air pollution in Mexico. Italy has encountered no particular environmental barriers yet, but this may be a function of minimal monitoring.Collectively, the environmental difficulties at the operating power stations around the world have been minor compared to the actual disasters that have befallen other processes of generating electricity. Even the potential environmental hazard of geothermal energy development is much less. It cannot be compared to a massive oil spill, a strip mine, or a radiation leak. Nevertheless, geothermal development faces an array of rules and regulations which, in view of world-wide environmental experience, need not be so strict. Regulation is particularly tight in the United States, a country which would, with appropriately relaxed controls, stimulate a global acceleration in development. Instead, the U.S. lies smothered in rules, and electrical geothermal development everywhere remains mired in a role of insignificant contribution.     

Assessment of externalities related to global and local air pollutants with the NEEDS-TIMES Italy model

This work is aimed to illustrate the potentiality of the multi-region NEEDS-TIMES modelling platform, in the economic evaluation of the environmental damages due to air pollution. In particular the effects of external costs on the least-cost optimised energy system configuration were analysed in a national case study with the NEEDS-TIMES Italy model, considering the externalities related to local and global air pollutants (NO_x, SO₂, VOC, particulates and GHGs). Different scenarios were compared to emphasise the role of external costs in the achievement of strategic environmental targets. The main results obtained are discussed, focusing on the changes in energy fuel mix as well as in local air pollutants and GHG emissions, highlighting the main conclusions in terms of policy strategies.     

EEC energy policy and the UK: The Birmingham energy model

This paper examines the implications of the EEC common energy policy for the UK energy sector as represented by a long-term programming model. The model suggests that the UK will be a substantial net exporter of energy in 1985 and will therefore make an important contribution towards the EEC's efforts to meet its import dependency target of 50% or less of gross inland consumption. Furthermore, the UK energy sector could operate within the 1985 EEC energy policy constraints with relatively low extra cost up to the year 2020 (the end of the period covered by the model). The main effect of the constraints would be to bring forward the production of synthetic gas and oil from coal.     

A mathematical model for energy and in-process inventory assessment in a manufacturing system

One of the many factors involved in the study of ‘in-process’ inventories is that of the energy input. During the last decade this factor has assumed an ever increasingly important rôle as supplies fall and costs escalate. Industry has been forced to adopt ways of improving its energy utilisation efficiency but this has been largely in the area of its physical use and less attention has been paid to operational applications.

Since ‘in-process’ inventory can accumulate between manufacturing stages, the energy losses can play an important part in setting decision rules and, in this paper, a mathematical model is built which attempts to take this into account. The model aims at forecasting the minimum fuel requirements whilst minimising operating costs in a multi-stage production inventory system. Further, the level of customer service that the system should provide is used within the model formulation.     

A model for improving energy efficiency in industrial motor system using multicriteria analysis

In the last years, several policies have been proposed by governments and global institutions in order to improve the efficient use of energy in industries worldwide. However, projects in industrial motor systems require new approach, mainly in decision making area, considering the organizational barriers for energy efficiency. Despite the wide application, multicriteria methods remain unexplored in industrial motor systems until now. This paper proposes a multicriteria model using the PROMETHEE II method, with the aim of ranking alternatives for induction motors replacement. A comparative analysis of the model, applied to a Brazilian industry, has shown that multicriteria analysis presents better performance on energy saving as well as return on investments than single criterion. The paper strongly recommends the dissemination of multicriteria decision aiding as a policy to support the decision makers in industries and to improve energy efficiency in electric motor systems.     

A Romanian energy system model and a nuclear reduction strategy

This paper presents a model of the Romanian energy system with the purpose of providing a tool for the analysis of future sustainable energy strategies. The model represents the total national energy system and is detailed to the level of hourly demand and production in order to be able to analyse the consequences of adding fluctuating renewable energy sources to the system. The model has been implemented into the EnergyPLAN tool and has been validated in order to determine if it can be used as a reference model for other simulations. In EnergyPLAN, two different future strategy scenarios for the Romanian energy system are compared to the actual data of Romania of year 2008. First, a comparison is made between the 2008 model and the 2013 strategy scenario corresponding to the grid of the Romanian transmission system operator (TSO) Transelectrica. Then, a comparison is made to a second strategy scenario in which the installed nuclear capacity is reduced by 50%.     

Looking for free riding: energy efficiency incentives and Italian homeowners

We examine the effect of energy efficiency incentives on household energy efficiency home improvements. Starting in February 2007, Italian homeowners have been able to avail themselves of tax credits on the purchase and installation costs of certain types of energy efficiency renovations. We examine two such renovations—door/window replacements and heating system replacements—using multi-year cross-section data from the Italian Consumer Expenditure Survey and focusing on a narrow period around the introduction of the tax credits. Our regressions control for dwelling and household characteristics and economy-wide factors likely to influence the replacement rates. The effects of the policy are different for the two types of renovations. With window replacements, the policy is generally associated with a 30 % or stronger increase in the renovation rates and number of renovations. In the simplest econometric models, the effect is not statistically significant, but the results get stronger when we allow for heterogeneous effects across the country. With heating system replacements, simpler models suggest that the tax credits policy had no effect whatsoever or that free riding was rampant, i.e., people are now accepting subsidies for replacements that they would have done anyway. Further examination suggests a strong degree of heterogeneity in the effects across warmer and colder parts of the country, and effects in the colder areas that are even more pronounced than those for window replacements. These results should, however, be interpreted with caution due to the low rates of renovations, which imply that the effects are estimated relatively imprecisely.     

White Certificates for energy efficiency improvement with energy taxes: A theoretical economic model

In this paper we analyze interactions of two energy policy instruments, namely a White Certificates (WhC) scheme as an innovative policy instrument for energy efficiency improvement and energy taxation. These policy instruments differ in terms of objectives and final impacts on the price of electricity. We examine the effect of these policy instruments in the electricity sector, focusing on electricity producers and suppliers in a competitive market. Using microeconomic theory, we identify synergies between market players and demonstrate the total effect on the electricity price when suppliers internalize the behaviour of producers in their decisions. This model refers to an ideal market situation of full liberalization. The cases we examine consist of electricity producers with and without a carbon tax, electricity suppliers with and without an electricity tax, and with WhC obligations. Furthermore, we present a parallel implementation of WhC for electricity suppliers with carbon tax on electricity producers and an electricity tax with WhC obligations to electricity suppliers. We demonstrate differences in optimization behaviour of producers and suppliers. Based on a couple of cases of WhC with carbon and electricity taxes, various positive and negative effects of both schemes in terms of target achievement and efficiency are present, which can lead to an added value of such schemes in the policy mix, although uncertainties of outcomes are quite high. A basic finding is that in a merit order several parameters can increase final electricity price after the implementation of different policies: demand for electricity and electricity supply cost at a large scale and then follow the level of level of obligation for energy saving, level of penalty, and price of WhC (representing the marginal costs of energy saving projects). The impact magnitude of parameters depends on the values chosen and on the initial position of suppliers (i.e. if their actual behaviour deviates from full compliance with targets).     

A planning model for acute energy shortages

This paper presents some results of a model developed by the Energy Systems Research Group under the auspices of the Swedish Energy Research and Development Board and the National Swedish Industrial Board for the allocation of energy resources during a temporary shortfall. the model is basically an input-output model of the conventional sort with special treatment of energy inputs. Different objective functions can be used, but the results here assume maximization of private consumption with given restrictions on other demand components and on the composition of private consumption. First a reference case intended to be a representative situation for the latter part of the seventies was developed to be used as a basis for comparisons. Following that a ‘worst case’, in which no adaptation responses were allowed for, was run. Then several cases in which only one adaptation mechanism was introduced were computed. These mechanisms included conservation, allowing reduction of other demand components such as exports, allowing limited changes in the composition of consumer demand or in other types of demand, and allowing inventories of finished and semi-finished goods to be drawn upon. Finally, several runs were made in which several of these mechanisms for adaptation were permitted to operate simultaneously.     

Electricity generation from renewable energy : The French experience

Besides its traditional and large scale involvement in hydro power, EDF has recently taken a significant interest in “new” renewable energy sources. The present paper describes the reasons and the field of application of this interest.     

An economic model for the appraisal and selection of energy supply system

Economic evaluation of different energy supply systems (district or local heating by natural gas) in Serbia is considered in this paper. According to variety of Serbian settlements (in density, size and layout of buildings) model which has ability to represent their different characteristics is formed. Model is based on identification of smaller urban areas with identical or similar characteristics and their representations with one of predefined nominal urban areas. For various nominal urban areas preferred type of energy supply system was selected. Obtained results formed matrix of preferred type of energy supply system (district or local heating) for different urban structures. This models’ matrix could be simple and useful tool for initial decision about energy supply system.     

A transient model for the energy analysis of indoor spaces

Using a finite-difference procedure, the dynamic energy response of indoor spaces under the influence of indoor energy pulses is analyzed. The method of analysis is simple and explicit and is based on the indoor surface thermal capacitance and heat-loss coefficient C_s and L_s respectively. It is demonstrated that these parameters characterize fully any specified indoor space, as far as its energy behaviour is concerned. Their values are calculated for an extended variety of indoor spaces, i.e. for various floor areas, floor dimensions ratios, indoor surface materials of envelope, partitions and furnishings, fenestration and indoor partitions areas. The range of validity of the present method of analysis is also defined and the corresponding deviations are quantified with reference to rigorous finite-difference solutions. The provided values of indoor space characteristics C_s and L_s may be used in a wide range of technological building applications, including comparisons and classifications of indoor spaces, design and selection of construction materials and furnishing as well as the investigation of effects from electric equipment, windows or doors opening, short-time ventilations, brief stay of visitors, etc.