Science and technology policies: The case of India

During the years preceding India's independence on August 15, 1947, the Indian National Congress focused considerable attention on the importance of science and technology, including scientific planning in an independent country. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of independent India, held the portfolio for science and technology, as have most of his successors. Nehru was largely responsible for Parliament's adoption of the 1958 Science Policy Resolution. In 1971, the governments of Indira Gandhi and her son, Rajiv Gandhi, took important steps to integrate scientific planning with economic planning. During these years, significant new government institutions were created. The current government of Manmohan Singh, which maintains an active national science advisory committee, has made significant changes in the Indian government's science and technology structure and is creating new institutions for science, technology, and higher education.Currently, India's total investment in research and development is somewhat less than 1% of the gross domestic product, but this ratio is expected to rise to 2% or more in the next few years. The government currently accounts for 85–90% of the country's R&D, but there are indications that private-sector investments will become more important.India has long enjoyed wide-ranging cooperation with several countries, including the US, Western Europe, the Soviet Union, and Russia. During the years immediately following independence, the UK exerted more influence on Indian science than any other country. Today the US has considerable influence, especially as it is also a preferred destination for Indian students and post-doctoral fellows.     

Science,technology and design

It is argued, through a historical review of human inquiry systems, that contemporary science is not in epistemological chaos as suggested by some authors. It should not, therefore, be overlooked as a source of constitutive knowledge relevant to the activity of design. It is suggested that the present state of scientific epistemology embodies the principles not only of science but also those of technology, industry and society, and that design should be viewed as an activity in conjunction with this paradigmatic organization and not solely as a technological activity.     

Evaluating research,technology and development in Canadian industry: Meeting the challenges of industrial innovation

Canadian firms respond to the challenges and opportunities of global competition by increasing their research productivity and the rate of innovation. The competitive edge for Canadian industry must now be based on a new appreciation of the dynamics of R & D, as well as management practices and strategies which are relevant to the systems which underpin innovation. New R & D and management models are being adopted by firms to cope with the dynamic and complex nature of innovation, the growing importance of transactions and linkages within innovation systems and the range of financial, human, social and environmental factors which now impact on technology assessment and decision-making. Given this new paradigm, evaluation techniques are being created and adopted by Canadian industry which provide them with a greater understanding of the value of their research and enhance the agility of their technology management. But, these developments are not confined to industry. Of equal importance is the convergence of evaluation methods used in both industry and governments to assess research and technology. The methods used by industry are now the techniques employed by governments to assess their own R & D and to formulate industrial S & T policies and strategies.     

Science,technology, and liberal democratic theory

This article explores the relationships between modern science and technology and Liberal Democratic theory, as expressed in the writings of Canadian political philosopher, C.B. MacPherson. It begins by noting the changes which have occurred in Liberal Democratic theory, as outlined by MacPherson, emphasizing first the absence of moral content in Bentham, the appearance of moral significance in John Stuart Mill, and finally the disappearance of morality in contemporary pluralist writings. The article then attempts to show the connections between these philosophical changes and the evolution of industrial technology during the same periods. It concludes with a critique of MacPherson for his unwarranted optimism that modern technology itself poses no threat to the integrity of Liberal Democracy. The central point made in the article is that contemporary Liberal Democracy may well be so permeated with essentially instrumentalist technological values that it may be impossible to accomplish MacPherson's goal of reestablishing the moral basis of Mill's vision of Liberal Democratic thought.     

Science,technology and development indicators for third world countries—Possibilities for analysis and grouping

The purpose of this article is to make a distinction between (a) a society's ability to generate a scientific and technological potential (generativity), (b) the potential itself and (c) the country's capacity to absorb or receive scientific and technological research results (respectivity). These three complexes are represented by joint indicators covering both levels and structures. A comparison of 30 developing countries (DC) shows, inter alia, that: (a) the polarisation in economic development of the countries considered confirms the view that the future of national development is linked to the scientific and technological potential, (b) joint indicators can interpret better than a comparison of pairs of single indicators, (c) countries with comparable levels of the three capacities (generativity, R & D potential and receptivity) differ mostly in the structures. These structures seem to determine the differences in the use of the capacities, (d) the level of R & D potential is related more closely to the country's ability to absorb scientific and technological results than with its resources for building up this potential.     

Socio-economic impact assessment of industrial projects in India

Socio-economic impact assessment (SEIA) is conducted in advance to determine the socioeconomic consequences of industrial projects. The focus is on the project-affected people. All possible data is collected from census information and academic institutions. Personal interviews are also conducted with the local people and their administrative heads. The main phases of the project addressed are pre- construction, construction and operation. Issues addressed include compensation payment for the land, provision of employment, and alternative accommodation for the people affected. A decision on the acceptability of the project is taken after assessing the positive and negative socio-economic impacts.     

The development of science and technology in China: A comparison with India and the United States

In “The Outline of the Medium and Long-term National Plan for Science and Technology Development (2006–2020)” (OMLP)), the Chinese government outlined an ambitious goal to become an innovation-driven country by 2020. However, there are many barriers that restrain the development of the national innovation capacity of enterprises. This paper reviews the capacity for science and technology (S&T) and innovation in China, including the factors that influence capacity building, the supporting policies for implementing the OMLP, and the promotion of capacity building for S&T and innovation in China. The paper concludes with recommendations for promoting further development of S&T and innovation in China.     

Technology, weapons, and industrial development: The case of Israel

The impact of the indigenous design and production of technologically advanced weapons in industrializing states continues to be a subject of great interest and importance. To date, however, studies of this linkage have tended to be highly generalized and simplistic. Most use static models, which assume either that this investment tends to divert scarce resources from the task of “nation building,” or, at the other end of the spectrum, that such production “spills over” into other areas, providing an infrastructure for broader technological and managerial development. In this study, a relatively complex and dynamic model relating military production to economic and technological development is proposed. In examining the case of Israel, it is shown that military production passes through various stages and is composed of separate and usually diverse sectors, from electronics to metallurgy. At each level and for every sector, the type of technology required, and, thus, the investment, risks and the potential for spill-over are different. Although Israel is, in many cases, unusual, nevertheless the generalized model can serve as a basis for the investigation of other cases.     

Science,technology and China's four modernizations

The crux of the four modernizations is the mastery of modern science and technology. Without them it is impossible to build modern agriculture, modern industry, or national defense.     

Science, technology and the economy: An Indian perspective

During the first three decades after 1947, the Indian economy grew only 3% per year but there was vast expansion in the science and technology (S&T) infrastructure. Decades later, especially during the last few years, the economy has grown much faster, but the S&T systems have not experienced the transformation that business and industry have. The net result is that the public sector S&T system is facing a major crisis even as the private sector contributes little to the national R&D effort. Wealth generation in India by private S&T services, especially in information technology, has led to greater prosperity for the educated middle class, but has also led to greater inequalities in income. The national scene is one of generally uneven achievement and extraordinary potential. This paper argues that unless another major shift in S&T policy occurs, there is real danger that India will not move beyond its status as a blue-collar S&T power.     

工业废水COD_(Cr)测定方法与技术发展过程分析

化学需氧量(chemical oxygen demand,COD)作为表征污水或废水污染程度的一个重要指标,在全球范围内被普遍采用。通过追踪COD方法发展的历史,以工业废水中最常用的重铬酸钾法为例,从氧化还原电位、催化作用等方面分析方法原理的特点、影响因素与适用范围,结合氧化剂的选择、定义的科学性、二次污染、COD成分的毒性以及干扰组分的存在5个方面讨论传统COD方法中存在的问题,指出方法创新和完善的方向;在方法原理基础上,论述微波消解技术、分光光度技术、库仑滴定技术等方面的COD技术化及其实际应用的动态,提出实现流程的标准化和样品的批量化可以提高效率的观点。通过对我国工业废水COD测定方法、技术应用的过程分析,指出COD方法及技术的创新性、可靠性、时效性对于我国未来的工业废水污染控制的稳定性与水环境管理的规范性将发挥重要的影响作用。