Scanning electron acoustic microscopy (SEAM): A technique for the detection of contact-induced surface & sub-surface cracks

A variant of the scanning acoustic microscopy technique, scanning electron acoustic microscopy (SEAM), uses a pulsed electron beam in a conventional scanning electron microscope (SEM) to generate elastic waves near the surface of the sample. Conveniently for studies of surface damage, the contrast-generating processes are at a depth commensurate with the thickness of many thin hard ceramic coatings and the typical depths of fatigue-induced cracks in both gears and rolling element bearing systems.Using examples from our studies of contact damage induced in thin hard coated systems and gears, this paper will demonstrate the applicability of SEAM techniques to the study of near-surface damage in coated systems (coating fracture and debonding) and gears (fatigue damage). We show that clear contrast can arise from cracks oriented both parallel to and, sometimes, perpendicular to the surfaces of many samples, and show that useful information can be provided regarding the debonding of coatings. It has also been found possible to delineate sub-surface contact and contact fatigue cracks allowing some information regarding crack orientation and extent to be deduced without the need for either serial or vertical sectioning of the sample.     

Subsurface imaging of glass fibres in a polycarbonate composite by acoustic microscopy

Using reflection acoustic microscopy at 800 MHz, we have imaged 10 m diameter glass fibres embedded in an optically opaque Makrolon (polycarbonate) matrix. Maximum depth of acoustic waves contributing to image formation was 105 m, with imaging resolution of several microns at shallower depths. The areal fibre distribution, lengths, and orientations were readily determined non-destructively from the acoustic images. Additionally, marked differences were observed between known normally bonded samples with high strengths, and poorly bonded samples from parts which exhibited fracturing and premature failures. In addition to acoustic microscopy, bulk sound velocity measurements were made and used to compute focus aberration for subsurface imaging. Results were correlated with destructive SEM techniques.     

Scanning tomographic acoustic microscopy using shear waves

We propose to use shear waves instead of longitudinal waves in a novel scanning tomographic acoustic microscope (STAM) in which the specimens are solid. When a specimen with a shear modulus is immersed in the microscope's water bath, mode conversion takes place at the water-solid interface. The shear wave energy is detectable and can be used for image reconstruction. Although wave transmission in most solid specimens is limited to about 20 degrees for longitudinal waves, it is about twice that for shear waves. Also, velocities of shear waves are lower than those of longitudinal waves and hence the wavelengths at the same frequency are smaller. For these and other reasons we can expect that for many specimens the resolution of a shear-wave STAM to be substantially better than that of a longitudinal-wave STAM. We use computer simulation in order to compare the operation of a shear-wave STAM with that of the conventional longitudinal-wave STAM. We have simulated tomographic reconstruction for each. The corresponding critical angles of incidence are computed and tomographic reconstructions of a particular solid specimen is obtained by using the back-and-forth propagation algorithm (BFP). Our simulation results show that shear-wave STAM has better resolution than longitudinal-wave STAM.     

亚表面缺陷的实时成像检测

提出一种适合于金属亚表面缺陷的可视化无损检测方法——磁光/脉冲涡流成像方法。该方法以脉冲信号激励产生涡流,以激光对被检测物体的照射取代传统涡流检测的线圈探头,通过磁光传感元件将缺陷引起的磁场变化转换成相应的光强度的变化,由传统的显微镜、照明系统、偏振器和CCD图像传感器组成的光学系统将光强变化转换为“明”或“暗”图像,实现了对缺陷的实时成像检测。本文论述了磁光/脉冲涡流实时成像检测机理,给出了一种实验装置。通过对金属表面/亚表面缺陷实验,表明该检测方法快速、准确,可实现微/纳米级缺陷的成像检测。     

广义边缘CWD-Hough变换在宽带声成像中的应用

提出了一种基于广义边缘CWD—Hough（GMCWD—Hough）变换的宽带声成像方法。分析了基于时间伸缩-时延的宽带相关声成像的基本模型,介绍了广义边缘CWD—Hough变换。根据目标回波的时频分布特点,该方法基于时间一频率联合分析法,提取信号在时频域的分布特性参数进行时间伸缩时延的声成像。通过设计合理的广义边缘核函数,能有效避免常用的WVD方法产生的交叉项影响,检测性能优于常用的Wigner—ville分布方法。实验结果表明该声成像方法的有效性,不仅适合水声宽带成像,而且对于低信噪比条件下的其它成像方式也具有参考价值。     

Characterization of heterogeneous matrix composites using scanning acoustic microscopy

Acoustic microscopy was used to examine the morphology of multi-phase matrices and composites. The acoustic microscopy imaging could easily resolve the rubber domains dispersed within a thermosetting or thermoplastic continuous phase. However, because the thermoplastic and thermosetting phase domains had comparable elastic moduli, the resolution between them was not always clear. Rayleigh wave distortion of imaging remained as one of the serious limitations that needed to be overcome in order for this technique to be widely utilized in heterogeneous/anisotropic media. In its present form, the acoustic imaging technique can be used to augment other existing analytical tools in order to generate more detailed morphological information that is useful in understanding structure-property relationships for multi-phase toughened matrices used in advanced composites.     

Quantitative measurements of apoptotic cell properties using acoustic microscopy

Time-resolved acoustic microscopy was used to measure properties of cells such as the thickness, sound velocity, acoustic impedance, density, bulk modulus, and attenuation, before and after apoptosis. A total of 12 cells were measured, 5 apoptotic and 7 non-apoptotic. Measurements made at 375 MHz showed a statistically significant increase in the cell thickness from 13.6 ± 3.1 μm to 17.3 ± 1.6 μm, and in the attenuation from 1.08 ± 0.21 dB/cm/MHz to 1.74 ± 0.36 dB/cm/MHz. The other parameters, such as the sound velocity, density, acoustic impedance, and bulk modulus remained similar within experimental error. Acoustic images obtained at 1.0 GHz showed increased RF-signal backscatter and a clear delineation of the nucleus and cytoplasm from apoptotic cells compared with non-apoptotic cells. Extensive activity was observed optically and acoustically within apoptotic cells. Acoustic measurements made one minute apart showed variations in the ultrasonic backscatter but not attenuation in the cells, which indicated rapid structural changes were occurring but not changes in bulk composition. The normalized crosscorrelation coefficient was used to quantify the variations in the backscatter RF-signal during apoptosis by comparing the first RF signal measured to each successive RF signal every 10 s. A coefficient of 1 indicates strong correlation, whereas a coefficient of 0 indicates no correlation. An average correlation coefficient of 0.93 ± 0.05 was measured for non-apoptotic cells, compared with 0.68 ± 0.17 for apoptotic cells, indicating that the RF signal as a function of time varied rapidly during apoptosis.     

Three-dimensional imaging using a frequency-domain synthetic aperture focusing technique

A frequency-domain method for implementing the synthetic aperture focusing technique is developed and demonstrated using computer simulation. As presented, the method is well suited to reconstructing ultrasonic reflectivity over a volumetric region of space using measurements made over an adjacent two-dimensional aperture. Extensive use is made of both one- and two-dimensional Fourier transformations to perform the temporal and spatial correlation required by the technique, making the method well suited to general-purpose computing hardware. Results are presented demonstrating both the lateral and axial resolution achieved by the method. The effect of limiting the reconstruction bandwidth is also demonstrated.     

Monitoring hydrogen embrittlement cracking using acoustic emission technique

Acoustic emission during delayed failure of hydrogen-charged low-alloy high-strength steel has been investigated. Tests were carried out at room temperature using standard ASTM three-point bend specimens. It was found that the cumulative acoustic emission counts rose slowly in discrete steps with increasing time in the initial stage of the embrittlement process, whereas it rose rapidly in the later stage prior to fracture. It was also observed that the initial embrittlement phase consisting of microcrack nucleation is characterized by low-amplitude (35–55 dB) signals only, whereas the rapid crack growth region is marked with high-amplitude (60–100 dB) signals. These observations indicate that such a change in the pattern of cumulative counts together with the level of amplitudes of the generated signals can be used to detect the so called incubation period for hydrogen embrittlement. This kind of early detection of critical cracks may help towards better fracture control.     

Three-dimensional measurement of short fatigue cracks using scanning acoustic microscopy

Abstract

The three-dimensional crack growth of short fatigue cracks in Al–Li 8090 alloy has been examined using time resolved acoustic microscopy. Two sets of specimens were machined having different orientations of the elongated grains. Depending on the orientation of the pancake shaped grains with respect to the propagation direction of the cracks different growth rates were obtained. Furthermore, the influence of the microstructure (e.g. grain boundaries) on the crack path in the two sets of specimens could be determined.

MST/1838     

光纤光栅声发射检测新技术用于轴承状态监测的研究

轴承的健康状况对旋转机械的工作状况有极大的影响。航空器中的故障轴承会间接造成事故,给飞行安全带来灾难性的后果,需要进行早期故障的有效检测判别或状态监测。与振动等传统的检测手段相比,声发射可有效检测到故障的早期状态,准确判断故障类别和严重程度。介绍了滚动轴承故障声发射检测原理以及光纤光栅声发射检测新技术。以预制外圈缺陷的轴承为例,进行了压电式声发射传感系统和光纤光栅声发射传感系统检测的对比实验,实验和分析结果表明光纤光栅声发射方法检测到的信号谱底噪声小,谱线清晰、干净,更容易分辨故障频率和分析故障的严重程度,优于振动和压电式声发射传感方法。最后介绍该技术在直升机维修保障中的应用情况。     

Non-destructive evaluation of composite materials using a capacitive imaging technique

This paper describes the application of the capacitive imaging technique to the inspection of composite materials. The fundamental theory of the capacitive imaging technique was briefly described. Experiments using prototype capacitive imaging probes were also carried out. The proof-of-concept results indicated that the capacitive imaging technique could be used to detect cracks and delaminations in the glass fibre composite, defects in the aluminium core through the glass fibre face as well as surface features on the carbon fibre specimens.     

Lateral RF image synthesis using a synthetic aperture imaging technique

The oscillating profile naturally present in ultrasound images has been shown to be extremely valuable in different applications, particularly in motion estimation. Recent studies have shown that it is possible to produce images with transverse oscillations (TOs) based on a specific type of beamforming. However, there is still a great difference between the nature of the lateral oscillations produced with current methods and the axial profile of ultrasound images. In this study, we propose to combine synthetic aperture imaging (synthetic transmit aperture, STA) using a specific beamformer in both transmit mode and receive mode combined with a heterodyning demodulation method to produce lateral radiofrequency signals (LRFs). The aim was to produce lateral signals as close as possible to conventional axial signals, which would make it possible to estimate lateral displacements with the same accuracy as in the axial direction. The feasibility of this approach was validated in simulation and experimentally on an ultrasound research platform, the Ultrasonix RP system. We show that the combination of STA and the heterodyning demodulation can divide the wavelength of the LRF signals by 4 and divide the width of the lateral envelope of the point spread function (PSF) by 2 compared with the previous approaches using beamforming in receive mode only. Finally, we also illustrate the potential of our beamforming for motion estimation compared with previous TO methods.     

Fracture behavior of concrete-concrete interface using acoustic emission technique

The fracture behavior of concrete-concrete interface is characterized using acoustic emission (AE). Beams of different sizes having jointed interface between two different strengths of concrete are tested. The results of load, displacement, CMOD, AE-events and AE-energy are analyzed. The width of fracture process zone and damage zone are computed using AE-data and are found to be independent of size. It is observed that, as the difference in compressive strength of concrete on either side of interface increases, the load carrying capacity, number of AE-events, AE-energy, width of fracture process zone and damage zone decreases.     

Nanoshells for in vivo imaging using two-photon excitation microscopy

Gold nanoshells have been intensively investigated and applied to various biomedical fields because of their flexible optical tunability and biological compatibility. They hold great potential to serve as luminescent contrast agents excitable with near-infrared (NIR) lasers. In this paper, we describe the development of nanoshells with a peak of plasmon resonance at 800 nm and their subsequent use for in vivo blood vessel imaging using two-photon excitation microscopy at an excitation wavelength of 750 nm. We were able to image single nanoshell particles in blood vessels and generate optical contrast for blood vessel structure using luminescent signals. These results confirm the feasibility of engineering nanoshells with controlled optical properties for single-particle-based in vivo imaging.     

Wideband acoustic microscopy of tissue

A scanning acoustic microscope (SAM) has been used to measure the elastic properties of tissue with a resolution of around 8 mum. This is achieved by broadband excitation of the acoustic lens, and the recording of an undemodulated returning signal. A method of analyzing this information to yield sound velocity, acoustic impedance, section thickness, and acoustic attenuation is described. Results from a sample of skin tissue are presented and compared with data from a computer simulation of the experiment.