Effect of two types of fish oil supplementation on plasma and erythrocyte phospholipids in formula-fed term infants

We studied the effect of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation of infant formulas on fatty acid composition of blood phospholipids in term infants. Two fish oil supplemented formulas containing 0.45 wt% DHA and high (0.35%) or low (0.10%) eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) were fed for 42 days and compared with a standard formula and breast milk. Infants fed supplemented formulas and breast milk had similar time-dependent changes for DHA from birth to day 42, i.e., slight decreases in plasma phospholipids and erythrocyte phosphatidylcholine and no change in erythrocyte phosphatidylethanolamine. Low-EPA formula prevented EPA accumulation but did not limit the significant decrease in arachidonic acid (AA) noted in infants fed high-EPA formula. These results suggest that term infant formulas should be supplemented with DHA-rich EPA, low fish oil and AA to achieve a fatty acid status in formula-fed infants similar to that of breast-fed infants.     

Plasma and erythrocyte alpha-tocopherol and plasma retinol concentrations in term infants fed formula enriched with long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids

OBJECTIVE: To assess the effect of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA)- and vitamin E-supplemented formula feeding on erythrocyte and plasma alpha-tocopherol (VE), and plasma retinol (VA) concentrations in neonates and to compare these values with those found in infants feeding on infant formula without LCPUFA or breast milk SETTING: University Hospital of Granada, Spain. SUBJECTS: 49 full-term infants. DESIGN AND INTERVENTION: Subjects who chose not to breast feed were fed either (i) unsupplemented infant formula (F) or (ii) infant formula supplemented with LCPUFA and vitamin E (FL). Alpha-tocopherol and retinol were measured at 7 days, 1 month and 3 months. RESULTS: Plasma and erythrocyte VE concentrations and plasma VE/total lipids ratio increased significantly in all groups at 1 month of life (P < 0.05), but did not change significantly between 1 month and 3 months in any group (P > 0.05). Erythrocyte VE and VA retinol concentrations were higher in infants fed an infant formula than in breast milk-fed infants at 1 month of life (P < 0.05). Finally, there were no significant differences in plasma or erythrocyte VE levels, plasma VA or plasma VE/total lipid ratio between any groups at 3 months of life (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: Infants fed on LCPUFA- and vitamin E-supplemented infant formula for 3 months have similar vitamin E and A status to infants fed on breast milk or infant formula without LCPUFA supplementation.     

Surgical management of 671 abdominal aortic aneurysms: a 13 year review from a single centre

BACKGROUND: We analyzed the role that nutrition and the insulin-like growth factors IGF-I and IGFBP-3 play on neonatal growth. METHODS: Full-term and preterm infants with 1 and 3 weeks of postnatal life (n = 54 and n = 33, respectively) were studied. Anthropmetric variables, daily intake of energy and nutrients, and serum levels of IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were measured. RESULTS: At the first week after birth, preterm infants had lower IGF-I levels than did those in the control group. At the third week of postnatal life, serum IGF-I and IGFBP-3 levels showed a significant increase. Preterm infants born before 33 gestational weeks showed lower IGF-I (p < 0.02) and IGFBP-3 (p < 0.02) levels than those born between 33 and 37 gestational weeks. Preterm infants fed with human milk supplemented with a formula showed higher serum IGF-I levels than those fed exclusively with a milk formula (mean +/- SEM 48.2 +/- 9.5 micrograms/L vs. 25.4 +/- 4.4 micrograms/L, p < 0.05). IGF-I and IGFBP-3 were correlated between themselves and with energy and protein intake. Multiple regression analysis confirmed that energy intake and serum IGFBP-3 levels were the most predictable variables with regard to IGF-I levels at neonatal period. CONCLUSIONS: These feedings suggest that IGF-I levels during the neonatal periods are influenced by the maturity stage of the newborn, energy intake, and the type of lactation.     

Economic analyses in clinical trials for cooperative groups: operational considerations

The objective of this prospective, cohort study was to compare the nutritional status of full-term infants who were fed human milk (BF, n = 29), formula (FF, n = 30) or evaporated milk formulae (EM, n = 30) for at least 3 months. Infants were seen at enrollment, 3 and 6 months, at which times a blood sample, diet record and anthropometric data were collected. Infants in the EM group received solids earlier (12 +/- 5 weeks) than did FF infants (15 +/- 4 weeks), and both were earlier than BF infants (19 +/- 4 weeks). Only 26% of the EM fed group received iron supplements as ferrous sulphate drops. Seven BF, 12 FF and 20 EM had abnormal ferritin values (< 10 ng ml-1) at 6 months. Copper intake was lower in the EM infants at 3 and 6 months. However, plasma copper and erythrocyte copper zinc superoxide dismutase (ZnCuSOD) levels did not differ between groups. Selenium intake was lower in the EM group (5 +/- 1 and 10 +/- 5 micrograms d-1; 3 and 6 months) than in the FF infants (13 +/- 4 and 19 +/- 7 micrograms d-1; 3 and 6 months). Erythrocyte SeGHSPx levels in EM infants were lower at 6 months (EM, 33.2 +/- 3.4; FF. 35.2 +/- 3.9: BF, 36.1 +/- 3.8 mU mg Hb-1). Thiamin intake (0.99 +/- 0.08 and 1.24 +/- 0.32; 3 and 6 months, mg 1000 kcal-1) was higher in the FF group than in EM infants (0.38 +/- 0.39 and 0.66 +/- 0.38; 3 and 6 months). There were more (13%) abnormal thiamin assays in the EM group at 6 months than in the BF and FF infants (0%). In conclusion, infants fed evaporated milk formula receive adequate copper but may not receive enough thiamin or selenium. Unless supplemented from birth with medicinal iron, intakes of iron will be inadequate.     

Declining fecundity and ovarian ageing in natural fertility populations

Lower leg length measurements in 19 healthy preterm infants were obtained by knemometry to assess short term growth. Eight infants received fortified human milk and 11 infants commercially available preterm formulas. Two independent observers measured lower leg length in each infant daily during the study period, weight was measured daily with a neonatal scale. While weight gain showed linearity in all infants, lower leg length growth showed mini growth spurts of 5 +/- 1.7 days, growth periods of 20 +/- 11 days or both types of short term growth. The overall weight gain was 35 +/- 5.6 g/day in infants fed human milk and 33 +/- 7 g/day in infants fed preterm formula. The overall lower leg length growth velocity was 0.51 +/- 0.04 mm/day versus 0.54 +/- 0.09 mm/day, respectively. Both groups had comparable weight and length increments. No correlation existed between the type of nonlinear lower leg length growth (mini growth spurts versus growth periods) and the feedings received by the infants.     

Polyunsaturated fatty acids in infant nutrition

The availability of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCP), such as arachidonic (C20:4n-6) and docosahexaenoic (C22:6n-3) acids, is important for early human growth and development. The capacity for endogenous synthesis of LCP from the precursor fatty acids linoleic (C18:2n-6) and alpha-linolenic (C18:3n-3) acid is limited in preterm and probably also in term infants. In utero, LCPs seem to be transferred preferentially from the mother to the foetus by the placenta. After birth, breast-fed infants receive preformed dietary LCP with human milk. In contrast, most current infant formulae are devoid of LCP. Premature infants fed such formulae develop rapid LCP depletion of plasma and tissue lipids, which is associated with reduced visual acuity during the first postnatal months. Therefore, LCP enrichment of formulae for premature infants is desirable. Recent observations indicate that term infants fed conventional formulae also exhibit lower plasma LCP values and may show functional disadvantages, but these data require further confirmation prior to drawing definite conclusions.     

Effect of the cholesterol content of a formula on the lipid compositions of plasma lipoproteins and red blood cell membranes in early infancy

We investigated whether or not a regular formula for full-term infants supplemented with cholesterol (cholesterol-fortified) would increase the plasma cholesterol concentration and alter the red blood cell (RBC) membrane lipid composition in healthy full-term infants compared with their breast-fed counterparts. At 1 mo of age, total plasma cholesterol and low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol were significantly higher in the breast-fed infants than in the cholesterol-unfortified, formula-fed infants. At 3 mo of age, total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol were significantly higher in the breast-fed infants than in the two formula-fed infant groups. These significant differences had disappeared by 6 mo of age. Although the cholesterol-unfortified, formula-fed infants had lower proportions of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) in the RBC membranes compared with the breast-fed group at 6 mo, DHA and EPA concentrations in the cholesterol-fortified, formula-fed infants were not significantly different. The results of the present study suggest that the plasma cholesterol concentration and fatty acid pattern of the RBC membranes in infants fed a cholesterol-fortified formula may be much closer to those in breast-fed infants than in infants fed a cholesterol-unfortified formula.     

Postnatal changes of leptin levels in full-term and preterm neonates: their relation to intrauterine growth, gender and testosterone

The present study was carried out to investigate leptin levels in arterial and venous cord serum and in amniotic fluid in full-term infants at birth and on the 5th postnatal day to define the relationship of leptin to intrauterine growth rate, gender and early postnatal life. The relation of weight gain to serum leptin levels in male preterm infants was determined measuring leptin concentration weekly in the first 5 postnatal weeks. Testosterone levels were determined simultaneously to explore a possible relationship between leptin and testosterone concentrations. Fifty-three term newborn infants with mean birth weight and gestational age of 3,419 g (range 2,150-4,480) and 38.9 weeks (range 36-41) and 19 preterm male infants (mean birth weight and gestational age were 1,416 g (770-1,800) and 30.2 weeks (26-35) were enrolled into the study. Leptin and testosterone levels were determined by radioimmunoassay. It was demonstrated that serum leptin levels were markedly elevated in the cord blood without discernible arteriovenous differences. Cord blood leptin was found to correlate with birth weight (r = 0.40, p < 0.002), weight to length ratio (r = 0.40, p < 0.002) and body mass index (r = 0.35, p < 0.005). It was significantly lower in boys as opposed to girls (p < 0.01) and there was an apparent fall by the 5th postnatal day (p < 0.001). Amniotic fluid contained leptin in much less concentration than cord blood and it proved to be independent of intrauterine growth or gender. Serum leptin concentration in preterm infants at 1 week of age was significantly lower compared with term infants (p < 0.002) and it increased progressively with age (p < 0.01). An inverse relationship was found between leptin and testosterone level (r = -0.358, p < 0.01) and a positive correlation between leptin level and weight/height ratio (r = 0.674, p < 0.01). It is concluded that leptin derived either from placenta or fetal adipose tissue may be involved in regulating fetal growth and development and it may be related to energy intake, storage and expenditure. In preterm male infants serum leptin concentration increases with postnatal weight and testosterone may suppress leptin synthesis.     

A randomised multicentre study of human milk versus formula and later development in preterm infants

Whether breast milk influences later neurodevelopment has been explored in non-randomised studies, potentially confounded by social and demographic differences between feed groups. Here in a strictly randomised prospective multicentre trial, Bayley psychomotor and mental development indices (PDI and MDI) were assessed at 18 months postterm in survivors of 502 preterm infants assigned to receive, during their early weeks, mature donor breast milk or a preterm formula. These diets were compared as sole enteral feeds or as supplements to the mother's expressed breast milk. No differences in outcome at 18 months were seen between the two diet groups despite the low nutrient content of donor milk in relation to the preterm formula and to the estimated needs of preterm infants. These results contrast with those reported from our parallel two centre study that compared infants randomly assigned a standard term formula or the preterm formula during their early weeks; those fed standard formula, now regarded as nutritionally insufficient for preterm infants, were substantially disadvantaged in PDI and MDI at 18 months post-term. It is shown here that infants from that study fed solely on standard formula had significantly lower developmental scores at 18 months than those fed on donor breast milk in the present study; yet the standard formula had a higher nutrient content than the donor milk. Thus, donor milk feeding was associated with advantages for later development that may have offset any potentially deleterious effects of its low nutrient content for preterm infants. As these outcome advantages were not confounded by the social and educational biases usually associated with mothers' choice to breast feed, our data add significant support to the view that breast milk promotes neurodevelopment.     

Delayed maturation of Hering-Breuer inflation reflex activity in preterm infants

We have previously shown that the strength of the Hering-Breuer inflation reflex (HBIR) diminishes between 2 and 12 mo of age in full-term babies. The purpose of this study was to determine whether the onset of this decline had commenced by 3 to 4 mo of age in healthy full-term infants and whether preterm delivery influences the pattern of maturation. Serial measurements of HBIR activity using the end-inspiratory occlusion technique were made in 25 preterm and 27 full-term infants at matched postnatal and postconceptional ages during the first 6 mo of life. Although similar levels of reflex activity were observed at birth (mean +/- SD of 101.2% +/- 42.4% in preterm, and 101.0% +/- 33.9% in full-term infants), by 40 wk postconceptional age (PCA) (i.e., term equivalent) HBIR activity (mean +/- SD) had increased to 121.7% +/- 51.2% in preterm infants, which was significantly greater than that in full-term infants of similar PCA (95% CI of difference: 0.2; 41.2%). By 15 wk postnatal age (PNA), HBIR activity had decreased to 68.8% +/- 26.6% in full-term infants, but remained significantly higher in those delivered prematurely (87.8% +/- 32.7%). However, when measurements were repeated at approximately 4 mo after the expected rather than actual date of delivery, these differences were no longer evident (95% CI difference preterm-full-term: -21.2; 3.8%). This study suggests that important transitions in respiratory control mechanisms occur between 8 and 15 wk PNA in full-term infants and that these changes are delayed in preterm infants.     

Bilateral tibial marrow ablation in rats induces a rapid hypercalcemia arising from extratibial bone resorption inhibitable by methylprednisolone or deflazacort

OBJECTIVES: To determine the effect of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) intake (or the dietary linoleic acid [LA]/ALA ratio) on the growth and visual function of term infants. STUDY DESIGN: Normal term infants were assigned randomly and in masked fashion at birth to receive formulas with approximately 16% of total fatty acids as LA and 0.4%, 1.0%, 1.7%, or 3.2% of fatty acids as ALA (LA/ALA ratios of 44, 18.2, 9.7, and 4.8) for the first 4 months of life. The fatty acid pattern of plasma phospholipids was determined shortly after birth and at approximately 21, 60, and 120 days of age. Anthropometric data were obtained at the same times and also at approximately 240 days of age. Transient visual evoked responses (VERs) were measured at approximately 120 and 240 days of age. For comparisons, anthropometric and VER data also were obtained in infants who were exclusively breast-fed for the first 4 months of life. RESULTS: Infants who received the formula with 3.2% ALA (LA/ALA ratio, 4.8) had higher plasma concentrations of phospholipid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) but lower concentrations of arachidonic acid at 21, 60, and 120 days of age. Mean weight of this group at 120 days of age was 760 gm less (p < 0.05) than the mean weight of the group that received the formula with 0.4% ALA (LA/ALA ratio, 44). Despite differences in plasma phospholipid DHA contents among groups, neither VER latency nor amplitude differed significantly among formula groups or between any formula group and age-matched, breast-fed infants. CONCLUSIONS: The highest versus the lowest ALA intake (or the lowest vs the highest LA/ALA ratio) resulted in higher plasma phospholipid DHA content from 21 to 120 days of age but was not associated with improved visual function as assessed by transient VER. Moreover, mean body weight of infants who received the highest versus lowest ALA intake was less at 120 days (p < 0.05). These data suggest that the lower LA/ALA ratios currently recommended for infant formulas should not be adopted until the effect of such ratios on growth are evaluated more completely.     

Evidence for defective skeletal mineralization in low-birthweight infants: the absorption of calcium and fat

Using serial metabolic balance techniques, the absorption and retention of calcium and the absorption of fat have beem measured over the first 30 to 70 days of life in 11 preterm and 2 full-term light-for-dates infants. They were fed either full-cream cow's milk, half-skimmed cow's milk, the proprietary filled milk S.M.A., or breast milk. The values for calcium intake, absorption and retention were compared with the rate of accumulation of calcium by the fetus in utero, which was calculated from published data on the chemical composition of fetal bodies. Infants fed breast milk had an absolute dietary deficiency of calcium. Those fed other milks ingested sufficient but they did not absorb enough. Though calcium absorption increased with increasing postnatal age, intrauterine rates of calcium retention were never achieved on any of the milks. The average retention of calcium by preterm infants as a percentage of intrauterine accumulation was, for cow's milk 38%, for S.M.A. 27%, and for breast milk 17%. The full-term light-for- dates infants absorbed and retained more calcium than the preterm infants; it was on average 52% of the amount accumulated by the human fetus for an equivalent weight gain. The average absorption of fat by preterm infants was, from the cow's milk preparations 55%, from S.M.A. 61%, and from breast milk 84%. The light-for-dates infants absorbed on average 87% of the breast milk fat. There was no evidence that the amount of calcium absorbed was materially influenced by fat malabsorption. The principal determinants of the amount of calcium absorbed were the length of gestation and postnatal age of the infant.     

Epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus infection requiring hospitalization in East Denmark

BACKGROUND: Prophylaxis against infection caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) with high titered RSV immunoglobulin or humanized antibody may soon be available in Europe. OBJECTIVE: To study the epidemiology of RSV infections requiring hospitalization in infants <6 months in East Denmark to provide a rational basis for decisions concerning prophylaxis against RSV. METHOD: Populat ion-based retrospective review of case records of infants <6 months admitted to pediatric departments with RSV infection in East Denmark from November 1, 1995, to April 30, 1996. RESULTS: Data were obtained from 459 infants. Seventy-three had predisposing conditions: prematurity, 49; pulmonary disease, 2; congenital heart disease, 7; neurologic disease, 6; others, 9. One preterm infant had bronchopulmonary dysplasia. The incidence of RSV infection requiring hospitalization in East Denmark among infants <6 months was estimated to be 34/1000/season. It was 32/1000/season among term infants and 66/ 1000/season among preterm infants (P<0.001). Infants with predisposing conditions and/or nosocomial infection (n = 24) had significantly more severe courses than otherwise healthy infants (P<0.01). One-hundred thirty infants received respiratory support by nasal continuous positive airway pressure, but only six required mechanical ventilation. No infants died. CONCLUSION: The course of RSV disease in East Denmark was milder than reported elsewhere, possibly as a result of the low prevalence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia in Denmark. However, RSV constitutes a considerable burden to the Danish pediatric health care system, and therefore prophylaxis against RSV is desirable.     

Do exclusively breast-fed infants require extra protein?

It has been argued that the growth rate of exclusively breast-fed infants may be limited by their protein intake. This issue was examined using data from an intervention study in Honduras in which infants were randomly assigned to be exclusively breast-fed for the first 6 mo (EBF; n = 50), or to receive preprepared solid foods (including egg yolk) in addition to breast milk beginning at 4 mo (n = 91). Neither weight gain nor length gain from 4 to 6 mo differed between groups despite a 20% higher protein intake (as well as significantly higher intakes of iron, zinc, calcium, vitamin A, and riboflavine) in the latter group. The 20 infants with the highest protein intakes in that group were matched to 20 EBF infants on the basis of energy intake; protein intake was 1.46 +/- 0.09 versus 1.10 +/- 0.17 g/kg/d, respectively (p < 0.001), but growth rate did not differ between groups. Similarly, the 20 infants with the lowest protein intakes in the EBF group were matched (by energy intake) to 20 infants given solid foods; protein intake was very low in the former compared with the latter (0.81 +/- 0.13 versus 1.04 +/- 0.20 g/kg/d; p < 0.001), yet there was still no difference in growth. Infant morbidity was relatively low and did not influence the results. These analyses indicate that protein intake is not likely to be a limiting factor with regard to growth of breast-fed infants from 4 to 6 mo of age.     

Effects of maternal age on parenting role.

Examined the proposition that maternal age influences parental role performance and satisfaction. Mothers, ranging in age from 16 to 38 yrs, comprised 53 full-term and 52 preterm dyads. Perceptions of parenting role were assessed 1 mo after hospital discharge of infancts using the Satisfaction with Parenting Scale; interactive behaviors were observed when infants were 4 mo old. When other demographic factors and psychosocial variables were controlled, increased maternal age was significantly related to greater satisfaction with parenting, to greater time commitment to that role, and to more optimal observed behavior. Effects of maternal age on observed behavior were stronger in the term sample, whereas effects of maternal age on role satisfaction were stronger in the preterm group. Results indicate that maternal age should be accounted for in studies of mother–infant interaction and child outcomes; the suggestion of linear age effects argues against popular beliefs that adolescent and late childbearing represent unique categories of risk for poor parenting outcomes. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Animal models of granulomatous inflammation

BACKGROUND: The Women and Infants Transmission Study is an ongoing prospective cohort study of HIV-infected pregnant women and their infants. We used the 1994 U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) classification system for HIV infection in children to describe HIV disease progression in 128 HIV-infected children, and examined maternal and infant characteristics associated with disease course. METHODS: The Kaplan-Meier method was used to calculate probabilities of entry into CDC clinical classes A, B, and C (mild, moderate, and severe HIV disease); CDC immunologic stages 2 and 3; and death. Relative risks of progression for selected predictor events were estimated using the Cox proportional hazards model. RESULTS: With a median 24 months of follow-up, the median ages at entry into clinical classes A, B and C were 5, 11, and 48 months, respectively. Increased risk of progression to class C was seen in infants who had: onset of class B events (p < .001); progression to immunologic stage 2 (p < .001) or 3 (p < .001); early culture positivity (in first 48 hours, p < .01; in first 7 days, p = .03); and early appearance (within the first 3 months of life) of lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, or splenomegaly (p < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Reaching specific clinical or immunologic stages were strong predictors of progression to AIDS or death. Early onset of clinical signs (onset of lymphadenopathy, hepatomegaly, or splenomegaly < or =3 months of age), and early culture positivity (within the first 48 hours or within the first week of life), defined the infant with highest risk of disease progression.     

Rebound bilirubin levels in infants receiving phototherapy

BACKGROUND: Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) has been documented in up to 20% of infants after repair of gastroschisis and is responsible for significant morbidity. NEC is reported to occur up to 10 times more in preterm infants receiving standard formula compared with those who have been fed exclusively with breast milk. Does breast milk confer a similar protection against NEC in infants who have undergone surgery for gastroschisis? METHODS: All newborns with gastroschisis delivered between 1990 and 1996 and treated in a single neonatal unit were analyzed retrospectively. Clinical data, details of feeding regimens, and episodes of definite NEC were recorded. RESULTS: Of 60 infants with gastroschisis, 6 (10%) died but none had evidence of NEC. Of the remaining 54 infants, clinical and radiological signs of NEC developed in 8 (15%). All recovered with medical treatment including the three patients with recurrent episodes. NEC developed in none of the 12 babies exclusively fed with expressed breast milk (EBM) in contrast to 1 (5%) of the 19 who received both EBM and formula, and 7 (30%) of the 23 who were fed solely on formula. There was no significant difference in gestation, incidence of primary versus silo closure, or incidence of intestinal atresia/stenosis in those with NEC (n=8) compared with those without (n=46), but birth weight in the NEC group was lower. NEC was less likely to develop in infants who received EBM than those who were exclusively formula fed (P < .02). CONCLUSION: After gastroschisis repair, feeding with maternal expressed breast milk may help to protect the infant from developing NEC.     

Energy balance and metabolic rate in preterm infants fed with standard and high-energy formulas

1. Energy balances were performed on sixteen low birth weight preterm infants over 7-10 d periods on a standard low-solute infant formula (2600 kJ/l), and on four high-energy formulas, providing different energy densities up to 3760 kJ/l. In two of the high-energy formulas the additional fat energy was provided by peanut oil, and the other two by medium chain triglycerides (MCT). Anthropometric measurements and metabolic rate (MR) determinations were made during the balance periods. 2. Mean energy retention on the standard formula was 66% of the intake and declined to below 50% on the two feeds providing the highest energy. Extensive energy balance data on the standard formula are available for reference. 3. Net absorption of dietary energy increased on all the high-energy formulas, rising from 362 kJ/kg per d on the standard formula to 453 kJ/kg per d on the highest energy-formula (P < 0.001). There was no advantage in using MCT. 4. Net absorption of dietary energy improved with advancing maturity, irrespective of the formula. 5. In spite of the increased dietary energy retention, there was no increase in growth rate during periods of feeding with the high-energy formulas. 6. Fasting and postprandial MR increased by 10.4 and 12.8% respectively on the highest energy feeds. 7. It is concluded that, at least in the short term, this type of high-energy feeding increases MR at the expense of growth and thus is probably of no advantage to the infant.     

Selenate fortification of infant formulas improves the selenium status of preterm infants

The purpose of this study was to determine whether selenate fortification of infant formula would improve the selenium status of relatively well, growing, preterm infants during the first 12 wk of enteral feeding. A high-selenium group (n = 7, mean body weight = 1312 g) received selenate-fortified preterm and full-term infant formulas containing 0.36 and 0.22 mumol Se/L, respectively, and a low-selenium group (n = 10, mean body weight = 1262 g) received non-selenium-fortified preterm and full-term infant formulas containing 0.12 and 0.11 mumol Se/L, respectively. There were no significant differences in growth between the two groups throughout the study. The high-selenium group had significantly greater mean selenium intakes than did the low-selenium group from weeks 2 to 12. Plasma selenium concentrations decreased over the study period in the low-selenium group. Plasma selenium-dependent glutathione peroxidase activity was greater in the high-selenium group at week 12 only. Red blood cell selenium concentrations decreased over time in both groups and were significantly greater in the high-selenium group at weeks 4, 8, and 12. Plasma selenium concentrations were significantly correlated with plasma glutathione peroxidase activity for all infants on study day 1 and at weeks 4 and 12. Selenium intake of all infants was significantly correlated with plasma glutathione peroxidase activity at 12 wk. Selenate fortification of infant formulas can improve the selenium status of preterm infants. Current selenium contents of infant formulas and recommendations for dietary intakes of selenium for some preterm infants may be inadequate.     

Infant response to the still-face situation at 3 and 6 months.

Observed 37 mother–infant dyads in the laboratory when infants were 3 and 6 mo old to investigate developmental changes in infant responses to the mother's still face (SF). Infants reduced their smiling and increased their gazing away from mother during the SF at both 3 and 6 mo. Compared with 3-mo-olds, 6-mo-olds were more likely to use directed hand activities while gazing away from mother. Results suggest that developmental changes in gaze and motor activity are incorporated into the infant's response to a stressful situation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)