Student evaluations of college instructors: Effects of type of course taught, instructor gender and gender role, and student gender.

The college curriculum is often separated into divisions or course types (e.g., natural science, the arts) that may be perceived to differ in the extent to which they use expressive feminine attributes (e.g., affectionate, sensitive) and instrumental masculine attributes (e.g., assertive, forceful). In Experiment 1, the effects of course type, student gender, and instructor gender and gender role on student evaluations of instructor effectiveness were examined. In Exp 2, students' perceptions of the importance of various gender role characteristics in instructors of different course types were explored. Results suggest that instructor gender role is more important than instructor gender in affecting student evaluations. Both female and male students preferred instructors (science instructors, in particular) who possessed both feminine and masculine characteristics, regardless of the gender of the instructor. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Explaining gender differences in self-pay expectations: Social comparison standards and perceptions of fair pay.

Examined gender differences in self-pay expectations and the factors that mediate these differences. On the basis of B. Major and E. Konar's (1984) model, 5 mediators were considered: career paths, objective job inputs, perceived job inputs, job facet importance, and social comparison standards. The mediating role of a 6th factor, fair pay standards, was also examined. College seniors planning to enter a variety of occupational fields completed the Career Expectations Survey, which assessed their self-pay expectations and the 6 mediating factors. Findings indicate that, regardless of occupational field, women had lower career-peak self-pay expectations than men. The best mediator of the gender gap in self-pay expectations was fair pay standards. Implications for future research on the construct of fair pay standards and its importance in understanding the gender wage gap are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of three theories relating facial expressiveness to blood pressure in male and female undergraduates.

Examined differing predictions of how emotional expressions and blood pressure are related. Spontaneous positive and negative facial expressions, resting systolic blood pressure (SBP), and reactive SBP were each measured for 148 male and female undergraduates. The discharge theory of emotions proposes that few expressions will predict higher baseline SBP, and this was found for men. A mismatch theory of emotions proposes that an imbalance between positive and negative expressions will predict higher baseline SBP, and this was supported for women. Finally, coactivation theory proposes that many expressions will predict higher reactive SBP, and this was found for both men and women. These results reconcile previous conflicting findings by clarifying the conditions under which each of these theories may be supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Men, gender stereotyping, and psychotherapy: Therapists' perceptions of male clients.

Male sex roles and gender stereotyping prescribe for men a way of being that is characterized by strength, self-containment, emotional control, and self-sufficiency. In this article, interviews with therapists are used to describe how aspects of traditional male socialization can negatively affect men's relationships and general sense of well-being. Suggestions for psychotherapeutic treatment with men are also made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential response for female and male law students on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory: The question of separate sex norms.

Analyzed differential responses to Female and Male Lawyer scale items on the Strong-Campbell Interest Inventory (SCII) for 67 male and 35 female law students. While there was systematic difference in responses between the sexes, the pattern of differential response on items unique to one or the other of the scales indicates that this difference would not affect scores if the scales were combined. Furthermore, the nature of the relation between the occupational groups and between the occupational and in-general groups on these items suggests that combined scales are feasible. Because there is an implicit bias in maintaining separate sex scales, it is suggested that the SCII be considered an intermediate step to a combined instrument. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotyping and evaluation in implicit race bias: Evidence for independent constructs and unique effects on behavior.

Implicit stereotyping and prejudice often appear as a single process in behavior, yet functional neuroanatomy suggests that they arise from fundamentally distinct substrates associated with semantic versus affective memory systems. On the basis of this research, the authors propose that implicit stereotyping reflects cognitive processes and should predict instrumental behaviors such as judgments and impression formation, whereas implicit evaluation reflects affective processes and should predict consummatory behaviors, such as interpersonal preferences and social distance. Study 1 showed the independence of participants' levels of implicit stereotyping and evaluation. Studies 2 and 3 showed the unique effects of implicit stereotyping and evaluation on self-reported and behavioral responses to African Americans using double-dissociation designs. Implications for construct validity, theory development, and research design are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Task perceptions and behavioural expectations: A process-oriented approach to subject behaviour in experiments.

Because of its emphasis on the documentation of artifact, previous research on the social psychology of the psychological experiment has not appreciably advanced understanding of S behavior. Prior research has tried to classify Ss' behavior as representing 1 of 4 preconceived roles that presumably bias data. The present study, in contrast, used an approach that regarded Ss' behavior as an integral part of the process of experimentation and attempted to explore Ss' perceptions of the dimensions relevant to experimental behavior. Specifically, this approach conceived of a single, multidimensional S role and viewed Ss' reactions as natural and legitimate within the experimental situation as it was experienced. Data from 858 college students are presented that identify some dimensions of Ss' perceptions of experimental tasks and their expected behaviors. The interrelationship of the behavioral expectations and task perceptions suggests that this process-oriented approach may provide a more constructive alternative to prevailing theory and research on the social psychology of the experiment. (French abstract) (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Female and male: Issues of gender.

Our culture's preoccupation with gender differences is reflected in the importance developmental psychologists have placed on gender-related issues. In this article, three areas of research where gender is or has been a primary focus of research are discussed: measurement of intellectual abilities, biology and behavior, and socialization processes. Policy implications of the research are suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of employee gender and behavioral style on the evaluations of male and female banking executives.

62 male and 60 female banking executives read a scenario describing a male or female banking manager who coped with a job-related conflict situation in either an unemotional, calm manner or an emotional, angry manner. Unemotional, calm behavior was evaluated as more effective and appropriate than emotional, angry behavior. However, an emotional, angry woman was evaluated more favorably than her male counterpart. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses of female undergraduates to scenarios of sexual harassment by male professors and teaching assistants.

This study sought to identify some of the factors that lead to assertive responding to sexual harassment. Responses of 120 female undergraduates (aged 19–50 yrs) to hypothetical scenarios of sexual harassment by male professors or teaching assistants were investigated. Two situational variables (ambiguity of the behavior and harasser status) and 1 individual difference variable (coping style) were examined. Participants completed a coping inventory and a questionnaire containing 1 of 4 harassment scenarios, with measures of affect, perceptions of the instructor, acknowledgment of the behavior as sexual harassment, and behavioral responses at 2 stages. Less ambiguous harassment situations were associated with greater negative affect, acknowledgment of sexual harassment, and more assertive responding. Coping style, but not harasser status, was also related to response strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Incidents of bias in college classrooms: Instructor and student perceptions.

Little is known about incidents of bias specific to college classrooms or how they are handled by instructors. To learn more about this subject, professors, graduate instructors, and undergraduates (N = 2,523) completed surveys assessing perceptions of classroom bias. Results indicated that about a quarter of instructors and half of students perceived an incident of bias in a classroom in the last year. Instructors’ responses to bias commonly included forms of direct confrontation, discussion, and ignoring. Undergraduates perceived significantly more bias than did instructors and rated responses to bias as significantly less effective than did instructors. Undergraduates also reported that instructors were occasionally the perpetrators of bias. These results indicate that preparation of instructors should include increased awareness of bias and methods of handling classroom bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student locus of control and response to expectations about self and teacher.

85 female undergraduates with either an internal or external locus of control (LOC) (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were used to investigate the relationship between LOC and responsivity to expectations regarding their own and their teacher's competence. Internal and external Ss, acting as students, were led to expect that they would perform well or poorly on a lesson and independently to expect that their teacher was competent or incompetent. After receiving a standardized lesson from a confederate acting as teacher, Ss' attitudes and performance were assessed. As predicted, internal Ss were more receptive to the expectation regarding self than external Ss. In contrast, the teacher expectation manipulation had no differential effect on internal and external Ss. Results suggest that students respond both to expectations about themselves and about their teacher and that LOC plays an important role in determining how an individual responds to such expectations. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student evaluations of college professors: Are female and male professors rated differently?

Over 1,000 male and female college students of 16 male and female professors (matched for course division, years of teaching, and tenure status) evaluated their instructors in terms of teaching effectiveness and sex-typed characteristics. Male students gave female professors significantly poorer ratings than they gave male professors on the six teaching evaluation measures; their ratings of female professors were poorer than those of female students on four of the six measures. Female students also evaluated female professors less favorably than male professors on three measures. Student perceptions of a professor's instrumental/active and expressive/nurturant traits, which were positively related to student ratings of teaching, accounted for only a few of these gender-related effects. Student major and student class standing also played a role in the evaluation of professors. The importance of gender variables in teacher evaluation studies is discussed, and implications for future research are noted. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hindsight bias in economic expectations: I knew all along what I want to hear.

Hindsight bias in economic expectations was investigated with particular focus on the moderating effects of attitudes. Stronger hindsight bias was expected for subjectively favorable economic developments. Six months before and after the introduction of the euro as the official book currency of the European Monetary Union, participants rated the probabilities of several economic developments. Results show that hindsight bias occurs with economic expectations and that it is moderated by attitudes. Euro supporters showed stronger hindsight bias for positive economic developments than for negative ones, whereas euro opponents showed the opposite pattern. The results support the notion that hindsight bias is a reconstruction bias in which self-serving tendencies can influence the reconstruction selectively for favorable and unfavorable outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Male therapists' clinical bias: Influence of client gender roles and therapist gender role conflict.

This study examined male therapists' gender role conflict, client sexual orientation, and client emotional expression as they interrelated with clinical judgments about male clients. Using a series of written clinical vignettes to manipulate the client variables of sexual orientation and emotional expression, 196 experienced male therapists completed a measure of male gender role conflict, read a clinical vignette varying the client's sexual orientation and emotional expression, and rated the client on several clinical dimensions. Canonical analysis revealed 2 roots indicating that therapist gender role conflict factors, in combination with client sexual orientation and emotional expression, were associated with therapists' ratings of the male client's prognosis and how much therapists liked, had empathy for, had comfort with, and had willingness to see the male client. Implications for counseling practice, limitations, and future research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of perceived race and gender in the evaluation of college teaching on RateMyProfessors.Com.

The present study examined whether student evaluations of college teaching (SETs) reflected a bias predicated on the perceived race and gender of the instructor. Using anonymous, peer-generated evaluations of teaching obtained from RateMyProfessors.com, the present study examined SETs from 3,079 White; 142 Black; 238 Asian; 130 Latino; and 128 Other race faculty at the 25 highest ranked liberal arts colleges. Results showed that racial minority faculty, particularly Blacks and Asians, were evaluated more negatively than White faculty in terms of overall quality, helpfulness, and clarity, but were rated higher on easiness. A two-stage cluster analysis demonstrated that the very best instructors were likely to be White, whereas the very worst were more likely to be Black or Asian. Few effects of gender were observed, but several interactions emerged showing that Black male faculty were rated more negatively than other faculty. The results of the present study are consistent with the negative racial stereotypes of racial minorities and have implications for the tenure and promotion of racial minority faculty. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonverbal affect responses to male and female leaders: Implications for leadership evaluations.

It was hypothesized that female leaders would elicit more negative nonverbal affect responses from other group members than male leaders offering the same initiatives. Male and female subjects participated in 4-person discussions in which male or female confederates assumed leadership. During the discussion subjects' nonverbal affect responses to the confederates were coded from behind one-way mirrors. Female leaders received more negative affect responses and fewer positive responses than men offering the same suggestions and arguments. Female leaders received more negative than positive responses, in contrast to men, who received at least as many positive as negative responses. The data demonstrate a concrete social mechanism known to cause devaluation of leadership, and thus support a more social interpretation of female leadership evaluations, in contrast to previous interpretations based on private perceptual bias. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial and gender bias in ability and achievement tests: Resolving the apparent paradox.

The study of potential racial and gender bias in individual test items is a major research area today. The fact that research has established that total scores on ability and achievement tests are predictively unbiased raises the question of whether there is in fact any real bias at the item level. No theoretical rationale for expecting such bias has been advanced. It appears that findings of item bias (differential item functioning; DIF) can be explained by three factors: failure to control for measurement error in ability estimates, violations of the unidimensionality assumption required by DIF detection methods, and reliance on significance testing (causing tiny artifactual DIF effects to be statistically significant because sample sizes are very large). After taking into account these artifacts, there appears to be no evidence that items on currently used tests function differently in different racial and gender groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)