Development of social roles in elicited and spontaneous behavior during the preschool years.

Two experiments tested 108 children (1.5–7.5 yrs old) on a predicted, 8-step sequence of the development of social roles. Performance on this sequence was related to 2 measures of more spontaneous behavior. Nearly all Ss fit the predicted sequence. By 2 yrs of age, most Ss made a doll act as an independent agent. The majority of 3-yr-olds made a doll carry out several behaviors fitting the role of doctor. At age 4 or 5, most Ss developed the capacity to show a social role, making a doctor doll interact with a patient doll. The intersection of social roles for 2 agents appeared at about age 6: A man doll could be both doctor and father to a patient who was also his daughter. In their spontaneous behavior, early preschoolers almost always showed the highest step that they were capable of, but beginning with the step for social roles, late preschoolers seldom showed their highest step. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Développement langagier et cognitif de l'enfant durant les trois premières années en relation avec la durée des vocalisations maternelles et les jouets présents dans l'environment: étude longitudinale auprès de populations á risque.

This study compares language and cognitive development of children from different socio-economic backgrounds, during the first three years of their life, in relation to the duration of maternal vocalizations and to the number of toys available to the child in his/her environment. A total of 209 mother–child dyads participated in the study. The sample was divided in three groups of mothers: 65 teenage mothers (aged 14–19 yrs), 91 mothers of low socioeconomic status (LSES; aged 20–37 yrs), and 53 mothers of higher socioeconomic status (HSES; aged 22–37 yrs). Results showed that children of teenage mothers and children of LSES mothers had a language development and a cognitive development inferior to those of children of HSES mothers. The duration of maternal vocalization at 6 and at 18 mo of age was related to measures of child development, particularly to child language development at 18 and 24 mo. Furthermore, the number of linguistic and social toys in the child's environment was correlated with some measures of language and cognitive development. Variability in children's language and cognitive development is related to environmental factors which seem more significant at certain times than others in the child's development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Le r?le des interactions mère-enfant et de la dépression maternelle à l'age préscolaire dans la prédiction de l'attachement de l'enfant à l'age scolaire.

Examined the contribution of mother–child partnership and maternal depression during the preschool period to the prediction of the child's attachment classification at early school-age in 91 French-Canadian children. Mother–child interactions were observed during a collaborative task using a scale measuring synchronized and reciprocal social-affective exchanges in the mother-child partnership (age 3–5 yrs). Maternal depression was assessed during the same lab visit using the Beck Depression Inventory. At a second lab visit (age 5–7 yrs), attachment classifications were assigned on the basis of reunion behaviour. A discriminant function analysis showed that reciprocal mother–child partnerships in the absence of maternal depressive symptom predicted security of attachment two years later, whereas failed reciprocity in the presence of maternal depressive symptoms predicted both insecure disorganized and ambivalent attachment. Quality of prediction is high for secure, ambivalent and disorganized children, although ambivalent and disorganized children cannot be distinguished from each other. Results support the importance of mother–child interactions and maternal depression as preschool variables associated with security and insecurity of attachment at early school-age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parents' acceptance of control needs and preschoolers' social behaviour: A longitudinal study.

Examined concurrent and longitudinal associations between parents' acceptance of their preschoolers' control needs and the preschoolers' social behavior (SB) vis-à-vis their parents. 30 videotapes of mother–child and father–child interaction in the child's home at age 2 yrs were scored, using the Rothbaum and Schneider-Rosen Parental Acceptance Measure (F. Rothbaum; see record 1988-26069-001). Child SB was assessed at ages 2 and 5 yrs using global ratings of Social Adaptation (SA; F. K. Grossman et al, 1980). There were no significant correlations between Parental Acceptance scores and concurrent SA. There was a significant correlation between maternal acceptance (MA) of control needs assessed when children were age 2 yrs and SA at age 5 yrs. The correlation of MA and children's SA was of greater longitudinal than concurrent significance. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Serious conduct problems in the children of adolescent mothers: Disentangling confounded correlations.

Early motherhood (r?=?.33) with the number of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-III) symptoms of conduct disorder in a sample of 253 boys (aged 6–13 yrs) who had been referred to outpatient clinics. The following models were compared using path analysis: (1) Teenage motherhood, parental antisocial personality, and socioeconomic status (SES) each contribute uniquely to the prediction of childhood conduct problems; (2) teenage motherhood mediates the association of SES and parental antisocial personality with child conduct problems; and (3) teenage motherhood is spuriously related with child conduct problems because of common associations with SES and parental antisocial personality. Model (3) best fit the data. Similar results were obtained whether maternal age at the birth of the firstborn child or the proband child was used to define maternal age and when teenage motherhood was defined as giving birth at     

Adolescent mother–infant–father relationships.

52 adolescent mothers (aged 15.7–29.9 yrs) were observed at home interacting with their 6-mo-old infants and male partners (aged 16.5–29.9 yrs). Both parents were also questioned independently about their dyadic relationship, social support networks, and life stresses. As in previous studies of adult parents, results indicate that the mothers interacted much more actively with the infants than did the fathers. Variations in the degree of paternal involvement and engagement were significantly related to the degree of mother–father engagement as well as measures of social support, whereas maternal involvement and engagement were unrelated to these measures. Findings were consistent with prior research on adult parents by J. Belsky et al (see record 1984-28444-001); M. E. Lamb (1981); and M. W. Yogman (1982). Age of the father was not consistently or meaningfully related to any of the behavioral or self-report measures. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological consequences of intervention in the birth process.

Investigated relationships between type of birth (spontaneous vaginal, forceps, and cesarean) and maternal psychological functioning and attitudes toward the infant. At specific time points throughout pregnancy and up to 3 mo postpartum, 253 women (mean age 28.21 yrs) completed measures assessing personality characteristics, psychological functioning and attitudes toward labor, birth, and the baby. After the birth of their babies, the women were categorized according to the type of birth experienced. There were no significant differences among the 3 birth groups in terms of their demographic status or psychological functioning in the prenatal period. The only measures that significantly differentiated the 3 birth groups were those relating to their birth experience. Contrary to reports in the published literature, type of birth was not found to be a major determinant of either maternal adjustment or psychological functioning in the postpartum period. (French abstract) (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prosocial development: A longitudinal study.

Examined, using a longitudinal methodology, (1) the development of prosocial moral judgment and (2) the relation between prosocial moral judgment and both prohibition-oriented moral judgment and maternal childrearing practices. Three samples were tested: 33 82–99 mo olds were interviewed 3 times; 16 49–67 mo olds were interviewed twice; and 30 2nd graders were interviewed once. From preschool to elementary school years, needs-oriented (empathic) reasoning increased in frequency of use, whereas hedonistic reasoning decreased. Significant changes continued from the preschool years to 2nd grade, although change could be noted even before entry into school (over a 1-yr period from ages 4–5 to 5–6 yrs). The relation between level of prosocial reasoning and prohibition-oriented reasoning was low to moderate, depending on the measures that were intercorrelated. Level of reasoning was related to nonauthoritarian, nonpunitive maternal practices, but the role of empathic, supportive maternal practices appeared to change with age. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social status in small groups: Individual–group similarity and the social "misfit."

Proposes that social status is a function of both individual and group characteristics and argues that 2 factors are necessary to predict peer popularity—prosocial interaction and person–group similarity. Prosocial behavior, viewed as a prerequisite for high social status, was predicted to be consistently correlated with status across peer groups. The relation between status and other social behaviors such as aggression was predicted to be mediated by the degree of similarity between the individual and the peer group. Two studies were conducted with 217 males (mean age 10 yrs) at a summer program for children with behavioral and social problems. Data from both acceptance and rejection measures of status support the proposed model. This evidence helps to integrate discrepant findings in the sociometric literature and demonstrates the utility of social psychological theories of interpersonal attraction in the study of peer status. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood amnesia and the beginnings of memory for four early life events.

Childhood amnesia was examined in a between-groups study of adults' memories of 4 datable target events: the birth of a younger sibling, a hospitalization, the death of a family member, and making a family move. 222 college students answered questions about events that had occurred when they were 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 yrs old and also about external information sources, such as family stories. Results show that the offset of childhood amnesia (earliest age of recall) is age 2 yrs for hospitalization and sibling birth and 3 yrs for death and move. Thus, some memories are available from earlier in childhood than previous research has suggested. Ss' mothers judged most of their children's memories as accurate. External information sources were negatively related to recall from the earlier ages (2–3 yrs) but positively to recall from later ages (4–5 yrs). These results are compatible with a multiple-determinants account of childhood amnesia. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differential effects of parent and grandparent drug use on behavior problems of male and female children.

Examines relations among grandparent and maternal drug use, mate's drug use, mother's dyadic adjustment, and behavioral/developmental problems in children (64 boys and 75 girls, aged 2–8 yrs). Six factors emerged from a 24-item checklist for mothers: Developmental Problems, Fearfulness, Hyperactivity, Acting-Out Behaviors, Psychosomatic Complaints, and Social Problems. Results indicated that (1) boys were more likely than girls to have developmental and social problems and (2) grandparent and maternal drug use significantly predicted more problems for boys than girls. Grandparent use predicted more Hyperactivity, Acting Out, Psychosomatic Complaints, and Social Problems for boys, and more Acting Out by girls. Maternal drug use predicted more Fearfulness, Hyperactivity, and Social Problems for boys, and no problems for girls. Maternal drug use predicted developmental problems for boys and girls. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early socioemotional predictors of cognitive competency at 4 years.

In a previous study (M. D. Lewis, 1993), infants' reunion distress at 3 mo predicted lower sensorimotor abilities at 4–5.5 mo. This follow-up study extended this prediction to overall cognitive competency at 4 yrs and examined its relation to early maternal predictors of competency. Controlling for early sensorimotor differences, 3-mo distress and anger predicted lower cognitive scores at 4 yrs, with most of the predicted variance in items tapping short-term memory. Controlling for early emotional and sensorimotor differences, 3–5 mo maternal responsiveness predicted higher competency at 4 yrs, with most of the predicted variance in items tapping perceptual performance. Infant joy did not predict later competency. Early negative emotion and maternal responsiveness were independent but equally strong predictors, suggesting different causal mechanisms or different developmental paths. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some problems and solutions in the study of change: Significant patterns in client resistance.

Latent growth curve methodology was applied to the study of patterns of change in client resistance during parent training therapy. The clinical sample consisted of 68 mothers of 52 boys and 16 girls (ages 5–12 yrs) with confirmed conduct problems. Simple linear and linear spline growth models were fit to the 3 repeated observational measures of maternal resistance during therapy and found inadequate. Instead, a quadratic growth model was used. Pretherapy maternal characteristics of inept discipline and antisocial behavior predicted chronically high levels of resistance. Maternal depressed mood predicted less negative quadratic curvature. No significant predictors of overall change in resistance were detected. Lack of negative curvature of the resistance growth curves predicted child court offenses during a 2-yr posttermination follow-up. Results are discussed with reference to the struggle-and-working-through hypothesis of client resistance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Maternal child-rearing practices and social problem-solving strategies among preschoolers.

Examined the relation of nurturant and restrictive maternal childrearing practices and maternal education to the types of social problem-solving strategies used by 72 preschoolers (mean age 4 yrs 7 mo). Children were administered the Preschool Interpersonal Problem Solving Test, and mothers completed the Child Rearing Practices Report. Maternal variables successfully predicted 5 out of 9 strategies identified. Restrictiveness was positively associated with the use of evasion and negatively with personal appeal and negotiation strategies. Maternal nurturance was the best discriminator for reliance on authority. An S's use of delay of gratification strategy was significantly predicted by the level of the mother's education. Education was also positively related to maternal nurturance and negatively to maternal restrictiveness. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological predictors of parents' sense of confidence and control and self- versus child-focused gratifications.

23 mothers and 16 fathers (age range of mothers and fathers 25–31 yrs) of 1–4 young children (oldest child mean age 3.4 yrs, youngest child mean age 2.3 yrs) completed an interview about their parenting experiences. In addition to gender, measures of psychological differentiation (e.g., the Washington University Sentence Completion Test), perceptions of the marital relationship, and occupational identity status were used to predict the parents' feelings of confidence and control and self- vs child-focused gratifications. Findings indicate that as expected, mothers reported less confidence and control and more self-focused gratifications. Greater marital harmony and more advanced occupational identity statuses predicted more confident parenting; better marital relationships predicted a greater sense of control; and occupational identity status interacted with gender to predict gratifications. Although the direct effects of psychological differentiation were not significant, this variable indirectly affected parenting via its relationship to marriage and work. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of age and ritalin dosage on the mother–child interactions of hyperactive children.

Observed interactions between mothers and 54 hyperactive children in 3 age groups (4 yrs to 5 yrs 11 mo, 6 yrs to 7 yrs 11 mo, and 8 yrs to 9 yrs 11 mo) during a drug–placebo evaluation of 2 daily dosages (0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg) of Ritalin (methylphenidate). Results indicate few age or drug effects on social interactions during free play; however, numerous age and drug effects were seen in the task period. With age, children increased their compliance and decreased their negative behavior, and their mothers decreased their levels of control and management. Both doses of methylphenidate increased child compliance equally, but only at the higher dose were significant drug effects found on mothers' behavior: Mothers decreased their control and negative behavior toward children during the high-dose condition. Drug effects on these interactions were not affected by children's ages. It is concluded that although the parent–child interactions of hyperactive children improve with age, methylphenidate produces further improvements in task-related interactions. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosocial outcomes of children of unipolar depressed, bipolar, medically ill, and normal women: A longitudinal study.

The psychosocial functioning of children of unipolar depressed, bipolar, medically ill, and psychiatrically normal women was studied over a 2-yr period. 96 children aged 8–16 yrs were assessed at 6-mo intervals on Child Behavior Checklist behavior problems, social competence, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, academic performance, and school behavior. The children of unipolar mothers showed significantly poorer functioning on all measures as compared with the other 3 groups of children, including bipolar offspring. A greater proportion of children in the unipolar group also had relatively chronic, clinically significant problems in psychosocial functioning. Children of bipolar women did not differ from children of psychiatrically normal women. Results are discussed in terms of consequences of children's continuing exposure to maternal depression and attendant stressors, as well as the contribution of social and academic difficulties in a vicious cycle of maladjustment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transitions in children's understanding of parental roles.

In 2 studies, 64 3–7? yr old White children were tested for a predicted, 6-step sequence of parental role concepts. Dolls were used to represent typical family roles, about which questions concerning role explanations were asked of Ss. The sequence was found to be scalable. Between 3 and 4? yrs of age, Ss could describe a parental role in terms of several behaviors appropriate to the role. By 6 yrs of age, most Ss could understand a parental role in terms of its relation to a complementary role. By 7 yrs of age, most Ss could describe and explain how 2 family role relationships could occur simultaneously for the same person. Implications of this sequence are discussed in terms of the generalization from previous studies and the explanatory power of the sequence. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk and resilience in early mental development.

Examined mental development scores for 2 groups of at-risk twins throughout their childhood, those classified as small for gestational age (SGA), and those twins falling below 1,750 g birthweight. The Ss were recruited as newborns—about 30 new pairs were added each year—and the total sample included 450 pairs of twins. Ss were assessed using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development at age 24 mo and the WPPSI at age 6 yrs. Results show that the SGA Ss showed only a modest deficit in IQ scores as compared to the full twin Ss, and thus these small-for-date Ss did not appear to be at special risk. The Ss below 1,750 g, however, did show a very significant deficit in IQ scores throughout childhood. When the recovery patterns were examined for this group, upper SES Ss appeared to recover completely, whereas lower SES Ss remained significantly depressed. Mother's education was significantly related to recovery from 24 mo onward, which suggests that maternal intelligence plays a prominent role in determining the level of recovery. When monozygotic Ss of markedly unequal birth weight were compared, the twins who weighed less than 1,750 g attained the same level of IQ scores at 6 yrs as did their heavier co-twins. Among these genetic replicates, the initially powerful effects of low birth weight did not exert a long-term handicapping effect on mental development. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The malleability of behavior inhibition: A study of individual developmental functions.

A longitudinal study of children's individual developmental functions in observed inhibited behavior toward strangers and in teacher judgments of inhibition in school showed that IQ and teacher judgments of social competence predicted a decrease in both measures of inhibition over a 6-yr period from ages 4 through 10 yrs. These findings suggest that, with increasing age, more intelligent or socially competent children can overcome inhibition in laboratory and school settings better than less competent children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)