Text comprehension, memory, and learning

People are often able to reproduce a text quite well but are unable to use the information in the text for other purposes. Factors that help people to reproduce a text have been studied for some time. This article explores ways that enable people to learn from texts. Content overlap between a text and the reader's prior knowledge is identified as one factor, and methods are proposed to identify whether a text is suitable for readers with given background knowledge. For readers with low background knowledge, a text should be as coherent and explicit as possible to facilitate learning. However, data are presented to show that for readers with adequate background knowledge, texts with coherence gaps that stimulate constructive activities are in fact better for learning.     

Text variations at the level of the individual sentence and the comprehension of simple expository paragraphs.

In Exps I, II, V, and VI, 274 4th–6th graders chose titles and wrote summary sentences for simple expository paragraphs. Ss did not utilize the information in topic sentences as effectively as did 116 undergraduates (Exps II and IV), but their performance improved when the topic sentence was highlighted. All Ss were better able to detect sentences that conformed neither to the paragraph's general nor specific topic than sentences conforming only to the general topic. The canonical topic comment form made deviant sentences more difficult to detect, as did the introduction of collocational ties, indicating that text variations at the level of individual sentences affected the evaluation of information that did not conform to the overall paragraph structure. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of contextual organizing material on children's listening comprehension.

Investigated the effects of verbal and pictorial organizing material on comprehension of paragraphs. 16 2nd and 16 5th graders were given organizing pictures or verbal statements before listening to paragraphs. In the organizers the relationships among the elements in the paragraphs were either presented or absent. Organizers presenting relationships strongly influenced the production of correct inferences and recall responses. Results suggest that knowledge of the interrelationships among elements is important, if not essential, for the comprehension of prose material. Fifth graders made more correct inferences with pictorial organizers than verbal organizers, showed more correct recall than 2nd graders, but made more incorrect inferences given verbal organizers. These results suggest that 5th graders generated alternative inferences concerning the meaning of prose material, sometimes leading to conclusions other than those intended. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pictures facilitate children's recall of unillustrated expository prose.

Four experiments investigated the effect of pictures on the recall of expository prose by 1st and 3rd graders. Exp 1 investigated whether pictures would facilitate recall of information presented both in the prose and in the picture (illustrated information) as well as information presented only in the prose (unillustrated information). Results showed that pictures facilitated children's recall of both illustrated and unillustrated information. Exp 2 replicated the effect for 1st graders with 2 types of unillustrated information: behavioral and physical attributes of unusual animals. Exp 3 again demonstrated that pictures facilitated recall of unillustrated information. This effect was not due to heightened or selective attention. Exp 4 examined whether the effect was restricted to unfamiliar topics. However, the facilitatory effect of pictures for unillustrated information occurred for passages about familiar and unfamiliar animals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of riddle structure on children's comprehension of riddles.

A classification of children's riddles was constructed, and 2 studies were conducted to test an implied developmental sequence of comprehension. In Exp I, riddles and jokes were collected and classified from 575 children of Grades 1–8 and Grade 10. As predicted, riddles based on conceptual tricks were most popular for the youngest Ss; riddles based on language ambiguity, for intermediate ages; and riddles based on absurdity, for the oldest groups. In Exp II, 208 Ss of Grades 1, 3, 6, 10, and college freshmen were presented with selected riddles from the 3 riddle categories to test for the predicted sequence of comprehension. Comprehension was measured by assessing the S's explanations of riddle answers and performance on a multiple-choice task. S's guesses to riddle questions and memory of the riddle answers were also recorded. Results show that explanations of the riddles were mostly justifications, in which the S demonstrated how the answer of the riddle was plausible. Ss were less likely to explain how the riddle was tricky. Guesses to the riddle questions were mostly realistic, particularly for the younger Ss. Memory of riddle answers was good for all grades, virtually perfect by Grade 6. Results show a general confirmation of the predictions for the classification. Conceptual-trick riddles were comprehended first, language ambiguity riddles at an intermediate age, and absurd riddles were comprehended only by the oldest Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mnemonic facilitation of learning disabled students' memory for expository prose.

In two experiments, learning disabled adolescents read passages that described North American minerals, using materials that incorporated either mnemonic or nonmnemonic illustrations. In Experiment 1, the students were instructed to remember attribute dichotomies (e.g., hard vs. soft minerals), whereas in Experiment 2, the students had to remember specific attribute values (e.g., Hardness Levels 1–20). In both experiments, students learned significantly more when they studied passages with mnemonic pictures. This was true both on immediate performance tests (Experiments 1 and 2) and following a 1-week delay (Experiment 2). Moreover, in Experiment 2, mnemonic instruction facilitated student's ability to make correct inferences about attribute dichotomies—even though such information was never explicitly presented in the lesson. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Language comprehension and probe-list memory.

Experiments were performed using probe-word recognition methodology in which participants read sentences that were presented 1 word at a time and were then shown a probe word and had to make a speeded response indicating whether the word had occurred in the sentence. One experiment showed that response times to probe words increased with the size of the set of candidate probes. The other experiments showed that the effects caused by name repetition in circumstances in which the repeated name was co-referential also occurred when the repeated name was not co-referential and when the order of words in a sentence was scrambled. The results suggest that responses in the task can be based on probe-list memory, a mental representation created to keep track of those words that the participant believes are likely to be probed, and that the use of the task to make inferences about language comprehension should be accompanied by controls ruling out such strategies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Imagery in children's memory for patterns.

Investigated the effect of type of pretraining on 8-yr-olds' ability to reproduce irregular shapes from memory. 30 Ss were assigned to 1 of 3 groups, exposed to a series of shapes, and instructed to remember the shape by its printed label or form an image of the shape "in your head," or were given no instruction. When Ss were again shown a selection of the shapes and asked to draw them from memory, it was found that the imagery group made significantly more accurate drawings. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Young children's comprehension of pretend causal sequences.

In 2 experiments, preschoolers' ability to understand pretend transformations was assessed. In Exp 1, 3- and 4-yr-olds watched 5 episodes in which 1 of 2 similar props was altered in a pretend fashion. Children's pretend responses showed that they understood these transformations. In Exp 2, 2-, 3-, and 4-yr-olds watched 6 episodes in which either a single or a double pretend transformation was carried out. In the single transformations, only 1 of 2 props was altered. In the double transformations, both props were transformed, but then 1 was returned to its original state. After each type of transformation, children made a pretend response to 1 of the 2 props. Children's accurate selection of prop in both experiments shows that they keep track of pretend transformations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inferential distance and children's memory for pictorial sequences.

Three-item pictorial sequences were shown to a total of 60 5-, 6-, and 7-yr-old children who were told to remember the events. Ss were tested subsequently on their abilities to recognize old pictures and select new pictures that were consistent with previously viewed sequences. New pictures varied in the inferential distance between them and the original sequence. All Ss judged close inferences as consistent with the sequence more often than distant inferences. In general, there was a progressive developmental improvement in accurate recognition of old items and correct discrimination of new items. This pattern of results was found for judgments based on sequential compatibility and on recognition of exact pictures. The probability of inferring new relationships from old sequences increased across the 3 age groups when correct memory for original sequences was controlled. Results indicate a developmental improvement in inferential skills beyond age-related changes in memory for premise information. Furthermore, distance of inferences is an important dimension of the stimuli that can affect memory and comprehension judgments. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working memory and individual differences in comprehension and memory of text.

Attempted to determine whether working memory processes measured by the Reading Span Test would be strongly associated with the ability to integrate information from different parts of a passage to infer an idea not explicitly stated in the passage. The study also assessed the influence of working memory processes on ability to encode explicitly stated and inferred information into long-term memory. 29 undergraduates were administered a letter span test and a reading span test. The ability to store and process information in working memory was shown to be positively related to (a) scores on a standardized reading comprehension test, (b) long-term memory encoding and retrieval of explicitly stated text information, and (c) integration of text information for the purpose of drawing inferences. Variations in only the storage capacity of working memory were not related to these measures. It is concluded that the ability to coordinate storage and process functions in working memory may be an important determinant of text processing skill, especially with respect to encoding information into long-term memory. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental and instructional analyses of children's metacognition and reading comprehension.

Children's understanding of their own cognitive skills, or metacognition, has been hypothesized to play a major role in learning and development. In this study, we examine the developing relation between children's metacognition and reading comprehension. Children in third- and fifth-grade classes were given an experimental curriculum, Informed Strategies for Learning (ISL), designed to increase their awareness and use of effective reading strategies. In both grades, children in experimental classes made significant gains in metacognition and the use of reading strategies compared with children in control classes. The multivariate profiles of reading skills derived from the developmental analyses helped to identify subgroups of children who responded differently to the metacognitive instruction. Although there were specific aptitude-by-treatment interactions, there was a general trend for metacognition and strategic reading to become more congruent from 8 to 10 years of age. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Instruction and modality effects on children's television attention and comprehension.

80 5- and 9-yr-olds viewed a TV program containing segments emphasizing visual, auditory, or audiovisual information. Half of the Ss were instructed to remember for later testing, and the other half to watch for entertainment. Results show that instructions increased visual orientation and cued recall in younger Ss, and free and cued recall were enhanced in older Ss. Visual orientation and recall of auditory content were positively correlated at both ages, but the association was significantly stronger in younger Ss. It is concluded that even 5-yr-olds are capable of modifying their TV viewing behavior in response to task demands. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Specific impact of radio and television on children's story comprehension.

A cross-media comparison of TV and radio elucidated the specific strengths of each medium for transmitting explicit and implicit story content. 48 elementary school children in 2 age groups (6.5–8 yrs and 9–10.5 yrs) were exposed to an animated audiovisual (TV) and an audio (radio) story. A narration of the original story text served as the common soundtrack. The design was counterbalanced for story-medium combinations and orders. Except for the inclusion of characters, recall of the explicit story content was equivalent across media. However, recall of details from the story was improved with a TV presentation. Recognition of expressive language was facilitated by a radio story, whereas picture sequencing was augmented by a TV story. The radio story also elevated the use of knowledge unrelated to the story for inferences by younger Ss and verbal sources for both ages, whereas the TV story enhanced inferences based on actions. Findings emphasize the need to consider the differential impact of media for conveying explicit and implicit content. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relation of metaphoric processing to comprehension and memory.

Investigated whether metaphors help or hinder prose comprehension using context-dependent metaphoric sentences or literally equivalent paraphrases as concluding statements for short didactic passages. 71 undergraduates read 8 short passages and rated the quality and effectiveness of the writing. Orienting instructions and the rating task established an incidental-learning set for the Ss. Half of the Ss read stories with literally equivalent statements replacing the metaphors. After completing the reading, they were given either an immediate or delayed cued recall test. Analysis of the gist scoring of Ss' recall protocols indicated increased memorability for passages with metaphoric conclusions. Not only were the concluding metaphors themselves recalled better than equivalent literal sentences, but there was also an increase in memory for the preceding context. Both initial processing and retrieval explanations of the results are discussed along with limitations related to the use of metaphors in text. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Constructing macrostructure for expository text.

In Exp I, 108 (36 Ss at each level) 3rd, 5th, and 7th graders and 36 graduate students read short expository paragraphs and performed tasks that required the generation of macrostructure. Ss chose the best title, wrote a summary sentence, or wrote 1 additional sentence for each paragraph. Some paragraphs were not well structured; others contained an anomalous sentence. Results show that performance improved with age. The title task was easier than the summary task, which in turn was easier than the next-sentence task. Only adult Ss reflected the presence of anomalous information, and the effects were different on each of the 3 tasks. In Exp II, the title task with 4 response options was administered to 24 undergraduates. Results show that Ss broadened their representations to encompass the deviant sentence in both related and unrelated paragraphs. In the summary-sentence task, proficient adults—who monitored their own comprehension—responded like children. It is suggested that children need instruction variations in both task and in text, introduced gradually and systematically, in order to deal with potential sources of difficulty. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in children's recognition memory for faces.

Tested 108 White, upper-middle-class children at 3 age levels for recognition memory of adult male faces following 3 different orienting activities at encoding. One group received standard intentional learning instructions, another group judged whether each face had a big nose, and a 3rd group judged whether each face appeared "nice." Memory improved with age, and judgments of niceness facilitated memory equally at all ages. The results pose difficulties for A. L. Brown's (1975) model of memory development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age effects in children's memory for unfamiliar faces.

247 1st–10th graders were tested on their ability to remember unfamiliar faces, and a recognition score was calculated for each S. Results show that memory improved steadily from 6 to 10 yrs, but deteriorated at 11 and 12 yrs. The former level was regained at 13 yrs. This unusual pattern of development has been reported only once previously (S. Carey, 1978). (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fostering children's revision skills through training in comprehension monitoring.

Elementary school children generally do not revise frequently or skillfully in the classroom. Two studies were conducted to learn if children's ability to revise problematic texts could be facilitated through training in a comprehension monitoring strategy. In the first study, third- and sixth-grade children who were trained on a self-questioning text-evaluation strategy located and revised significantly more target text problems than did control children. The goal of the second study was to compare the effects of prior exposure to problematic texts and self-questioning strategy training. The results showed that a combination of the two approaches was most effective in increasing third graders' revision scores. The results from both studies show that acquiring a strategy for evaluating the comprehensibility of a text can help children make appropriate revisions to improve that text's communicative quality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Informed Strategies for Learning: A program to improve children's reading awareness and comprehension.

Examined the role of awareness about their own cognitive skills on the learning and development of 87 3rd graders and 83 5th graders. Half of the Ss were given an experimental curriculum—informed strategies for learning (ISL)—designed to increase Ss' awareness and use of effective reading strategies. The remainder of the Ss were used as controls. Results show that Ss who participated in ISL made larger gains than did controls on cloze and error detection tasks. No differences between groups were found on 2 standardized tests of reading comprehension. Findings demonstrate that metacognition can be promoted through direct instruction in classrooms and that increased awareness can lead to better use of reading strategies. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)