Can you repeat that? Qualitative effects of repetition and advance organizers on learning from science prose.

88 female college students who did not have strong backgrounds in natural science listened to a short passage about radar or Ohm's law either 1, 2, or 3 times. Overall amount recalled increased with number of presentations, but there was a pattern in which recall of conceptual principles and related information increased sharply with repetition, whereas recall of formal equations and concrete analogies did not. In addition, problem-solving performance increased with number of repetitions, but verbatim recognition declined. Advance organizers presented before a single presentation tended to produce recall and problem-solving performance most similar to that obtained with repeated presentations. Results suggest that Ss tend to use qualitatively different reading strategies on the 1st presentation of science prose than on the 3rd presentation. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses to "neutral" pronoun presentations and the development of sex-biased responding.

Investigated whether 36 kindergarten and 36 1st-grade children, like college students, would give male-biased responses to a "he" presentation and examined how Ss would respond to the use of "they" and "he or she" pronoun presentations. The effects of pronoun use on memory were also investigated, as were possible sex differences in responding. Each S was assigned to 1 of 3 pronoun presentation groups, each of which contained an equal number of girls and boys. Ss in the different groups listened to the exact same story except that Group I Ss heard the pronoun "they" used throughout the story, Group 2 Ss heard "she" or "he" used throughout the story, and Group 3 Ss heard the pronoun "he" throughout the story. Ss were then asked to retell the story and were shown pictures of a boy and a girl and asked to indicate which one the story was about. Results support the pronomial dominance theory of pronoun functioning for young children. Results also support the hypothesis that boys initially use a self-imaging response to neutral presentations. The time of transition away from this response was identified as the 1st-grade level. There was no indication that kindergarten or 1st-grade girls use the self-imagining approach. The "they" presentation appeared to be the most neutral. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use and maintenance of strategies: The influence of accessibility to knowledge.

Conducted 2 experiments in which the interaction between strategy use and accessibility to relevant knowledge was investigated. Ss were asked to memorize a list of categorizable words, and use of a categorization strategy was assessed. Typicality of the category exemplars was varied in a between-Ss fashion to manipulate accessibility to relevant knowledge and the S's experience with the strategy. Ss were then given a 2nd list of categorizable words to memorize, and the use of a categorization strategy was again assessed. In Exp 2, attributional data regarding strategy use were also collected. Results from the 2 experiments show that variations in accessibility to knowledge have a significant effect on strategy use on the 1st memorization trial. Experiencing highly typical items on the 1st list was found to be associated with continued use of the strategy on the 2nd list (i.e., ease of use on the 1st trial affected maintenance of the strategy). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Communicative incompetence and the non-fluent bilingual.

Examined the evaluative reactions during a communication experiment with 32 male native speakers of English who had moderate but nonfluent speaking abilities in French. Ss had to speak to interlocutors in either English or French using either a casual or formal speech register. Results show that Ss evaluated their interlocutor less favorably when using their second language if the sociolinguistic demands of the communication situation required the use of a casual rather than a formal speech register. The reverse pattern was observed when Ss used their native language. Results are discussed in terms of self-perception theory and a communicative competence approach to 1st and 2nd language learning. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"How good is the evidence for a production deficiency among learning disabled students?": Correction to Shepherd et al.

Reports an error in "How good is the evidence for a production deficiency among learning disabled students" by Margaret J. Shepherd, Lynn M. Gelzheiser and Roberta A. Solar (Journal of Educational Psychology, 1985[Oct], Vol 77[5], 553-561). Figures 1 and 2 (p. 557 and 559, respectively) are reversed. The captions are correct, but Figure 1 should be above the caption for Figure 2 and Figure 2 should be above the caption for Figure 1. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1986-14779-001.) Investigated the spontaneous use of mnemonic strategies by learning disabled (LD) and non-LD children and adolescents to examine whether LD Ss can be distinguished from their non-LD peers on the basis of strategy use and recall. In Exp I, 105 LD and 105 non-LD 9-15 yr olds were administered a picture study/recall task, in which the strategies of interest were categorical organization during study and clustering during recall. In Exp II, 140 LD and 140 non-LD 11-17 yr olds were administered a paired-associate recall task, in which the strategy of interest was elaboration. In both studies, LD Ss earned lower mean recall scores than did the non-LD Ss. As a group, LD Ss did not differ from non-LD Ss in the use of categorical organization during study but showed less categorical clustering at recall. Fewer LD Ss used elaboration. Despite these differences, recall and strategy use were not useful predictors of classification as LD or non-LD and were only weak to moderate correlates of academic achievement. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recency judgments in children: A production deficiency in the use of redundant background cues.

Presented 8 20-picture lists to 40 2nd and 40 4th graders, and each list followed by 3 test pairs, each pair repeating 2 list items. Ss were required to pick the item they had seen more recently on the list. Background color cues were provided, and half the Ss were instructed in using the cues to simplify the task. Difficulty of the recency judgments was also varied by increasing the separation between the 1st presentation of the tested items from 3 to 9 items. The wider the separation, the better the judgment of relative recency. On cue problems, training improved the performance of 2nd graders but not 4th graders. The developmental implications of the study are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The time course of repetition effects for words and unfamiliar faces.

The repetition effect on reaction time to words and unfamiliar faces was examined at lags of 0, 4, and 15 items between 1st and 2nd presentations. For words, Ss made either a lexical decision or a decision based on the stimulus's structural attributes. In the lexical decision task, a significant repetition effect was found at all 3 lags for words, whereas for nonwords the effect was significant only at Lag 0. In the structural decision task, the repeated decision was facilitated for both words and nonwords only at Lag 0, despite a word superiority effect at all lags. Target faces were presented either 0, 1, or 5 times before testing. Ss made either structural discriminations (face/nonface) or recognition judgments. In the structural discrimination task, the effect of repetition was significant only at Lag 0 (regardless of the number of pretest presentations). In the recognition task, the repetition effect was longer lasting, and its magnitude increased with the number of presentations which, presumably, determined the strength of the episodic memory trace. These results are taken as showing that repetition effects, like other measures of memory, are influenced by the type of stimulus, its preexperimental history, the level to which it is processed, and the lag between the initial presentation and the test. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Habituation of the EEG arousal response in rats: Short- and long-term effects, frequency specificity, and wake–sleep transfer.

In 3 experiments with 78 male Holtzman albino rats, presentation of auditory stimuli over interstimulus intervals (ISIs) of several minutes to sleeping Ss produced significant habituation of the EEG arousal response. The arousal response habituated to an asymptote after only 2 or 3 stimulus presentations. Little or no spontaneous recovery occurred between sessions separated by 24 or 72 hrs. The habituation produced by a single stimulus presentation was retained for at least 24 hrs, and orderly habituation was shown with a 24-hr ISI. Approximately 90% retention of habituation was shown 32 days following 10 stimulus presentations, and some degree of retention was shown for as long as 50 days. After habituation had reached a long-term asymptote, 600 stimulus presentations over 2-sec ISIs produced further response decrements, but these decrements recovered completely within a matter of minutes and responsiveness returned to the previously established long-term asymptote. Habituation was shown to be frequency-specific over both 24-hr and 32-day intervals. Habituation produced by stimulus presentations to awake Ss transferred to the condition in which stimuli were presented to sleeping Ss. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in judging the frequency of events.

80 Ss in 2 age groups, 18–30 and 60–75 yrs, saw a list of words that varied in number of presentations (1, 3, or 5) and level of background language frequency (high, medium, or low). Immediately or after a 20-min retention interval, Ss judged the presentation frequency of the study list words. Older Ss were less accurate in their frequency judgments than young Ss. The age difference was present on the immediate test and was not due to greater difficulty in discriminating presentation frequency from background frequency in the older group. The results are not consistent with the hypothesis that frequency judgment is unaffected by developmental changes. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memorization processes involved in performance on the Visual-Sequential Memory subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities.

Two studies investigated memory processes involved in performance on the Visual-Sequential Memory subtest of the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities. In the 1st study, 64 2nd and 4th graders were administered this subtest under standard conditions. Ss were designated as either "labelers" or "nonlabelers" according to whether they used a stimulus labeling strategy to aid recall. Differences in performance between 2nd and 4th graders could be accounted for almost entirely in terms of the greater number of labelers in the 4th grade. In the 2nd study, labelers and nonlabelers from Exp I at each grade level were formally trained to use a labeling strategy. The training resulted in improved performance for all Ss. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How good is the evidence for a production deficiency among learning disabled students?

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 77(6) of Journal of Educational Psychology (see record 2008-10974-001). Figures 1 and 2 (p. 557 and 559, respectively) are reversed. The captions are correct, but Figure 1 should be above the caption for Figure 2 and Figure 2 should be above the caption for Figure 1.] Investigated the spontaneous use of mnemonic strategies by learning disabled (LD) and non-LD children and adolescents to examine whether LD Ss can be distinguished from their non-LD peers on the basis of strategy use and recall. In Exp I, 105 LD and 105 non-LD 9–15 yr olds were administered a picture study/recall task, in which the strategies of interest were categorical organization during study and clustering during recall. In Exp II, 140 LD and 140 non-LD 11–17 yr olds were administered a paired-associate recall task, in which the strategy of interest was elaboration. In both studies, LD Ss earned lower mean recall scores than did the non-LD Ss. As a group, LD Ss did not differ from non-LD Ss in the use of categorical organization during study but showed less categorical clustering at recall. Fewer LD Ss used elaboration. Despite these differences, recall and strategy use were not useful predictors of classification as LD or non-LD and were only weak to moderate correlates of academic achievement. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time allocated and time spent relative to time needed for learning as determinants of achievement.

171 Ss in Grades 4 and 5 who read at grade level were given 3 task presentations, each of which yielded a trials score (trials needed, trials spent, trials allocated) as well as a retention score. In addition to these scores, degree of learning or achievement scores were obtained. Degree of learning was the level of accuracy attained by the last learning trial of each task presentation. Achievement was set for 100% for the time-needed presentation; 91% of Ss reached this criterion. Degree of learning under the time-spent and time-allocated presentations varied from 30 to 100%. The trials-spent:trials-needed ratio scores were calculated for each S. Results show that spending and/or allocating insufficient learning time had a direct negative effect on achievement. Both degree of initial learning and 1-wk retention dropped significantly when Ss spent or were given fewer trials than needed to learn the experimental task. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intelligence and nonentrenchment.

Suggests that intelligence can best be understood through the study of nonentrenched (i.e., novel) tasks that require Ss to use concepts or form strategies that differ from those they are accustomed to. It is suggested that the limited success of the cognitive-correlates and cognitive-components approaches to intelligence are due in part to the use of tasks that are more entrenched (familiar) than would be optimal for the study of intelligence. Two nonentrenched tasks are described, one requiring projection into the future of states of objects, the other requiring complex analogical reasoning where multiple terms of analogies can be replaced by alternative answer options. Research with adult Ss into the 1st task focused on performance components of task solution; research into the 2nd task focused on metacomponents of task solution. Correlations of task and component latencies were generally higher than those obtained in most contemporary information-processing research on the nature of intelligence. Implications for educational theory and practice are discussed. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the utility of the keyword mnemonic for vocabulary learning.

Examined the use of the keyword mnemonic for vocabulary learning by university students given extensive keyword training. Keywords were identified by the learners rather than supplied by the experimenter. In Exp 1, Ss studied and recalled English equivalents of German nouns before and after mnemonic training under different presentation conditions. Before training, learning was 60% better with 4 list presentations at a 2.5-s rate (4?×?2.5) than with 1 presentation at a 10-s rate (1?×?10). Learning was better after training, especially in the 1?×?10 condition; Ss reported difficulty using the keyword mnemonic in the 4?×?2.5 condition despite higher learning scores in that condition after training. In Exp 2, Ss learned brief definitions of unusual words with self-paced presentation. The keyword Ss scored significantly more poorly than controls on items not selected for keyword suitability, and additional data indicated that it was difficult to generate keywords for many of those items and that an alternative mediational strategy was preferred. A 3rd experiment showed no learning difference between the keyword-generated version of the keyword method used in Exps 1 and 2 and a keyword-supplied condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional strategies, attention, and metacognition in Puerto Rican children.

60 2nd-, 5th-, and 8th-grade Puerto Ricans participated in a strategy assessment task and an incidental learning task that provided a measure of attentional performance. Metacognition concerning attention was assessed by asking Ss to predict how much incidental material they would recall. ANOVAs revealed no developmental changes in the use of an efficient attentional strategy, the amount of central recall, the amount of incidental recall, or in metacognitive knowledge. Results differ from a previous study by the 1st author and M. G. Weiss with 60 predominantly White, middle-class Florida children in which attention and strategies became increasingly efficient as a function of age. In comparison to the Florida sample, Puerto Rican 2nd graders' strategies were more efficient and the 8th graders' strategies were less efficient. Attention on the incidental learning task was less selective for the Puerto Rican Ss than the Florida Ss. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality differences in spontaneous personality inferences at encoding.

Examined the relationship between individual differences on a trait measure with behavioral correlates—a balanced authoritarianism (F) scale developed by D. Byrne (1974)—and the content of stimulus sentences and their related dispositional retrieval cues. Two sets of sentences were developed in pretesting with 33 undergraduates. In the 1st set, events suggested a consensual disposition for each sentence actor to either high-F (HF) or low-F (LF) Ss. In the 2nd set, events suggested a different consensual disposition to HF and LF Ss. 38 HF and 39 LF undergraduates then read both sets of sentences for a "memory study." Consensual dispositions and semantic associates to the actors were used to cue recall. For the 1st set, there was a significant interaction between S type, sentence type, and cue type. LF dispositions were more effective retrieval cues for LF than for HF Ss. Ss had little accurate awareness of having made trait inferences. No significant effects were found for HF cues alone or for the 2nd sentence set. Results indicate that HF and LF Ss differ in their spontaneous social inferences about others and have little awareness of making these inferences. Implications for integrating trait and cognitive approaches to personality are discussed. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relation between formal operations and a possible fifth stage of cognitive development.

86 18–35 yr old college students, 52 females and 34 males, were asked to solve 3 formal operations tasks. In addition, all Ss participated in a problem-finding task. Results are contrary to those previously reported in that no relation was found between performance on problem finding and the formal operations tasks (problem solving). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfert d'une stratégie de mémorisation chez des enfants de 10 ans: étude des différences individuelles.

Studied spontaneous or induced use of an organization strategy on free recall tasks by children differing with regard to perceptual field dependence–field independence (i.e., global vs analytic perceptual style). Human Ss: 72 normal male and female school-age children (mean age 10 yrs). In a 2 by 2 by 2 experimental design, Ss were divided into 8 groups according to gender, perceptual style (global vs analytic), and treatment (control vs experimental). The groups received a brief illustration of a semantic organization strategy designed to promote memorization of verbal material. Ss performed 3 successive and identical recall tasks followed by 2 different tasks requiring either a transfer of maintenance or a transfer of generalization. Intergroup differences in memorization strategies and recall performances were analyzed. Tests used: The Group Embedded Figures Test. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stimulating transitions in moral reasoning as a function of stage of cognitive development.

Examined L. Kohlberg's proposition that cognitive development is necessary though not sufficient for moral development. The specific hypothesis tested, in a pre–posttest control group design involving 44 female adolescents (mean age 16.2 yrs), was that Moral Stage 3 Ss who have attained "early basic formal operations" are more susceptible to attempts to stimulate moral development than Stage 3 Ss who have attained only "beginning formal operations" and lack the cognitive prerequisites for moral transitions. A series of pretests (verbal reasoning and logico-physical problems, and Moral Judgment Interview) was used to obtain Ss who met the appropriate cognitive and moral criteria. The treatment exposed Ss to Stage 4 reasoning in individual role-playing situations. A moral judgment posttest followed 1 wk later. Results confirm the hypothesis, thus providing evidence for the proposition that cognitive development is necessary for moral reasoning development. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Black children's use of nonstandard grammar: Two years later.

A Berko-type task requiring Ss to derive the present, plural, possessive, and time extension forms of nonsense syllables was administered to 115 Black and White 2nd graders and readministered to a subsample of these same children upon their reaching the 4th grade. At both 2nd- and 4th-grade levels, White Ss supplied significantly more standard English responses and Black Ss significantly more hypothesized nonstandard English responses to each of the 4 tasks. Additionally, Ss of both races showed significant increases in standard English usage and significant decreases in nonstandard English usage over the 2-yr period. The possibility that grammatical differences between Black Ss and White Ss might disappear given more time is discussed. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)