Fouling Propensity of Modified Heat Transfer Surfaces

Abstract

As much as attention that has been paid to surface treatment as an efficient, and environmentally friendly approach toward fouling mitigation, the characterization of many innovative modified surfaces has become a matter of much debate. The latter is closely associated with the intermolecular interaction energies which would profoundly influence the adhesion of precursors onto the modified surfaces. In this study, based on the extended Derjaguin, Landau, Verwey and Overbeek (DLVO) theory, a new criterion is proposed to predict the propensity of a surface when prone to crystallization fouling or biofouling. Thereafter, the proposed criterion is examined against the present experimental results as well as those from previous studies where the required information for the determination of new criterion is available. The comparison shows that deposit formation onto heat transfer surfaces decreases with increasing the new proposed fouling propensity indicator criterion. Moreover, nearly 75% of the collated crystallization and biological fouling data points are predictable with this criterion and reasons for those that are not in compliance with the proposed criterion are discussed.     

Experimental Investigation of Crystallization Fouling on Grooved Stainless Steel Surfaces During Convective Heat Transfer

The beneficial aspects of enhanced or extended heat transfer surfaces may be offset if operated under fouling conditions. In this article, preliminary experimental results for crystallization fouling of CaSO₄ solutions onto surfaces with different structures are reported. Flat stainless steel plates (50 mm × 59 mm) with “V”-shaped grooves on the side of fluid flow were used as heat transfer surfaces. Experiments were carried out under both clean and fouling conditions to discern how the same surface structures perform under such circumstances. In addition, the impact of both the direction of grooves with respect to fluid flow (crossed, longitudinal, and mixed flow grooves) and the groove dimensions has also been investigated. Fouling trends are discussed in terms of induction time and fouling rate. Significant differences have been found for the various flow conditions.     

Fouling Reduction Characteristics of a No-Distributor-Fluidized-Bed Heat Exchanger for Flue Gas Heat Recovery

Heat exchangers and heat exchanger networks are extensively used for the purpose of recovering energy. In conventional flue gas heat recovery systems, the fouling by fly ashes and the related problems such as corrosion and cleaning are known to be major drawbacks. To overcome these problems, a single-riser no-distributor-fluidized-bed heat exchanger is devised and studied. Fouling and cleaning tests are performed for a uniquely designed fluidized bed-type heat exchanger to demonstrate the effect of particles on the fouling reduction and heat transfer enhancement. The tested heat exchanger model (1 m high and 54 mm internal diameter) is a gas-to-water type and composed of a main vertical tube and four auxiliary tubes through which particles circulate and transfer heat. Through the present study, the fouling on the heat transfer surface could successfully be simulated by controlling air-to-fuel ratios rather than introducing particles through an external feeder, which produced soft deposit layers with 1 to 1.5 mm thickness on the inside pipe wall. Flue gas temperature at the inlet of heat exchanger was maintained at 450°C at the gas volume rate of 0.738 to 0.768 CMM (0.0123 to 0.0128 m³/sec). From the analyses of the measured data, heat transfer performances of the heat exchanger before and after fouling and with and without particles were evaluated. Results showed that soft deposits were easily removed by introducing glass bead particles, and also heat transfer performance increased two times by the particle circulation. In addition, it was found that this type of heat exchanger had high potential to recover heat of waste gases from furnaces, boilers, and incinerators effectively and to reduce fouling related problems.     

波纹和波纹打孔板翅表面换热特性的研究

采用红外热像技术在稳态条件下分别测量了波纹和波纹打孔板翅表面的对流换热系数，得到了换热无量纲准则式。对两种板翅表面的传热与阻力特性进行了比较分析，结果表明在Re=1000-3000的大部分范围内，波纹打孔型表面比波纹型表面的换热系数高5%-25％，在Re＜2000的范围内，波纹打孔流道的阻力略小于波纹流道或基本相当。图6参3     

Modeling of Particulate Fouling on Heat Exchanger Surfaces: Influence of Bubbles on Iron Oxide Deposition

Studies of iron oxide deposition on Alloy-800 heat exchanger tubes have been part of a continuing research program at the University of New Brunswick (UNB); the present work formulates mechanisms for the effect of bubbles on deposition in water under boiling conditions. To supplement results from earlier deposition experiments in a fouling loop at UNB, measurements of bubble frequency and departure diameter as a function of heat flux were performed. High-speed movies of bubbling air/water systems indicated that a pumping action moved particles from adjacent areas at the surface to bubble nucleation sites. To explain the observations, the model considers deposition and concomitant removal. Deposition includes microlayer evaporation and filtration through the porous deposit. The deposit is sparse in the first stage, when the dominant process is microlayer evaporation including particle trapping and pumping, creating spots of deposit. Filtration becomes more important as the deposit thickens to a stage when microlayer evaporation becomes negligible. Chimney effects then control. Turbulence due to detaching and collapsing bubbles affects removal. In subcooled boiling, collapsing bubbles generate enough turbulence to maintain much of the deposit labile, while in bulk boiling bubble detachment from the nucleation site is dominant and a smaller portion of the deposit is labile and subject to removal. Model predictions are presented and shown to agree quite well with experimental data.     

An Evaluation of Heat Transfer Surface Materials Used in Fouling Applications

Fouling is a very important and complex problem that extends into many fields, including natural, chemical, medical, and industrial processes. Fouling of a surface takes place as a result of the complex reactions that cause deposits to form on process surfaces. A number of parameters influence fouling development, including flow velocity, surface temperature, surface material/finish, surface geometry and fluid properties. Fouling is a transient process that begins with a clean process surface and progresses until the surface no longer can be used effectively. The event sequence of the fouling process appears in general to be universal, beginning when fluid comes into contact with a process surface. During the induction period, the conditioning film forms with heat transfer efficiencies not changing significantly. Conditioning film development is followed by a rapid accumulation of deposit growth. It is during this growth phase that the heat transfer across the process surface starts to dramatically change. Finally, a pseudo steady-state period takes place when accumulation is almost constant. Deposit accumulation causes efficiencies to significantly decrease, and a complete surface cleaning may be required. Conclusions and observations regarding the materials/surfaces that are commonly used in designs where fouling may be a concern are presented here. Comparisons of fouling rate and deposit thickness are given for several materials.     

Natural-Convection Heat Transfer in Channels With Isoflux Convex Surfaces

Numerical solutions are presented for laminar natural convection heat transfer in channels with convex surfaces that are subjected to a uniform heat flux. Simulations are conducted for several values of Grashof number (10 to 10⁴) and radius of curvature (1 to ∞). The governing elliptic conservation equations are solved in a boundary-fitted coordinate system using a collocated control-volume-based numerical procedure. The results are presented in terms of streamline and isotherm plots, inlet mass flow rates, curved wall temperature profiles, maximum hot wall temperature estimates, and average Nusselt number values. At the lowest radius of curvature, computations reveal the formation of recirculation zones in the exit section for all values of Grashof number considered. For a radius of curvature equal to or greater than 2, recirculation does not occur at any Grashof number. For values of radius of curvature between 1 and 2, the value of Grashof number at which recirculation occurs decreases with increasing values of the former. The variation in the buoyancy-induced volume flow rate is highly nonlinear with respect to the radius of curvature, and the value of the radius of curvature at which the volume flow rate is maximum increases with increasing Grashof number. The value of radius of curvature at which the maximum hot wall temperature is minimized increases with Grashof number. For all configurations studied, the average Nusselt number increases with increasing Grashof number values. Correlations for maximum wall temperature and average Nusselt number are provided.     

Heat Transfer in a Horizontal Cylinder With Eccentric Surfaces

Heat transfer in horizontal cylinders exposed to free convection and radiation is of importance in many industries. Usually this problem is treated by adopting a concentric geometry, disregarding that the external surface temperature is not uniform. If an eccentric geometry is used, the external surface temperature should have a larger variation, changing the flow around the cylinder and the heat transfer coefficient, either improving or reducing the heat transfer. A numerical analysis is presented of the heat transfer in a horizontal cylinder with an internal isothermal surface eccentric to the external surface that is exposed to air free convection and radiation. The conduction problem was solved analytically and integrated numerically, while the free convection was solved by the PHOENICS software. The parameters analyzed were the ratio of radius, the ratio between the material and air thermal conductivities, the Rayleigh number, the emissivity of the outer surface, and the eccentricity between the external and inner surfaces. The parameters of a proposed equation to estimate the total heat of an eccentric arrangement in terms of the total heat of the corresponding concentric arrangement and the ratio between the convective and conductive thermal resistances were determined for given ratios of radius and eccentricities.     

Experimental Investigation of Microbial Fouling and Heat Mass Transfer Characteristics on Ni-P Modified Surface of Heat Exchanger

Fouling deposition problem on heat transfer surface is widely distributed in the field of energy and chemical industry,and microbial fouling is a common fouling type in heat exchanger.In this article,the surface modification was used for inhibiting or mitigating the microbial fouling deposition on heat exchange surface.Firstly,the experimental system for real-time monitoring the fouling deposition process was built,and then the Ni-P modified surface was prepared.Further,the slime forming bacteria(SFB)microbial fouling characteristics and corresponding influencing factors on Ni-P modified surface were investigated experimentally.The results indicated that Ni-P modified surface had an excellent fouling inhibition property.Comparing with carbon steel,Ni-P modified surface reduced the fouling heat resistance by 80%.Accordingly,the influencing factors of microbial fouling deposition including temperature,flow rate and microbial concentrations were discussed.With cooling water temperature increasing given in the experiment arrangement,the microbial fouling resistance was increased first and then decreased,while with bacteria concentration and flow rate increasing,the fouling resistance was increased and decreased separately.The work can provide experimental reference for the fouling inhibition surface development and fouling inhibition mechanism study.     

管材种类和污垢对凝汽器传热性能的影响

用凝汽器热力计算中的分布计算公式,对电厂常用的黄铜管HSn70-1、钛管TA2、奥氏体不锈钢管304、317L,铁素体不锈钢管444、SEA-CURE(海优)进行了传热性能的计算,定量分析研究了管材的导热系数和污垢对凝汽器传热性能的影响。结果表明,尽管不同管材的导热系数相差数倍,常用管材凝汽器的总传热系数K差别一般不到6%,有污垢时差别进一步缩小;污垢热阻是控制热阻,0.015mm碳酸钙垢就占总热阻的50%以上,使K降低一半左右;管壁热阻占比最小,清洁时约为3%~11%,0.015mm碳酸钙垢时,约占总热阻的1.5%~6%。     

叶片热障涂层结构内的非定常传热效应

在热冲击与脉动热流边界条件下,应用数值方法求解一维非傅立叶导热方程,分析双层结构热障涂层内的一维非定常传热特性。计算模型引入壁面曲率修正,考虑了涡轮叶片表面的型线曲率影响。分析结果表明:涂层材料热松弛时间的长短是瞬态传热特性的决定因素。边界受瞬态冲击热流条件下,涂层内的温度分布在10倍的松弛时间后达到平衡分布。边界热流脉动周期与松弛时间相当时,涂层内热流出现了波状传输,热障涂层内的温度呈波状分布。非傅立叶导热方程预测的温度交变厚度大于抛物型方程预测的厚度,显示了高频热流作用下,涂层材料可能发生疲劳破坏。叶片表面的的凸形曲率以指数率形式,增强了涂层内温度波幅度,解释了叶片前缘等处涂层易出现裂纹的现象。     

Composite Fouling of Heat Transfer Equipment in Aqueous Media - A Review

Recent research on fouling where composite fouling in aqueous media may be present is reviewed. In practical industrial applications, usually several types of fouling occur simultaneously; however, due to the complexity of fouling, various types of fouling are studied in isolation. Crystallization (precipitation) fouling is the most-studied type of fouling. Other types of fouling are studied in various degrees. Not much attention has been paid to the relative significance and the interactive effects of these processes when they occur simultaneously. This is specifically the case for composite inorganic (precipitation and particulate) and biological fouling. In general, there is lack of attention to the presence, mechanism, modeling, and mitigation of composite fouling.     

换热表面结垢对U型管蒸汽发生器传热性能的影响分析

U型管蒸汽发生器的壳侧沉积了来自二回路系统中的腐蚀产物,结垢导致热量聚积在金属换热管上,容易造成垢下热点腐蚀,危害设备安全。为了明确结垢对蒸汽发生器传热性能的影响,本研究基于仿真平台APROS建立了U型管蒸汽发生器的分布式模型,并根据已公开论文中的数据进行了模型准确性验证;推导了污垢热阻与表面换热系数之间的关系式,分析了不同结垢厚度、位置对U型管蒸汽发生器换热区域的传热管壁面温度、流体温度、传热系数、热流密度等的影响程度。研究结果表明：随着结垢程度的加剧,蒸汽发生器的换热效率不断降低,出口蒸汽品质不断下降;结垢对沸腾段换热效率的影响比对过冷段换热效率的影响更大。     

Droplet Regulation and Dropwise Condensation Heat Transfer Enhancement on Hydrophobic-Superhydrophobic Hybrid Surfaces

ABSTRACT

Efficient Dropwise condensation on nanostructured superhydrophobic surfaces (SHS) has received extensive attention. However, good heat performance only occurs in two conditions: the presence of non-condensable gas, or low surface subcooling. For industrial pure steam condensation, large droplets tend to be pinned on the surfaces due to the large contact angle hysteresis (CAH) and impede heat transfer process. In this study, the SHSs and hydrophobic surface (HS) were integrated in spaced band pattern with different width and CAH. It was observed that the condensed droplets experience a fast horizontal shifting from hydrophobic zones to superhydrophobic zones driven by adhesive force. In this way, the departure path of droplets were altered and the refreshing frequencies are increased for both SHS and HS regions. The heat transfer coefficients for some 1 mm × 1 mm hybrid surfaces were found to be elevated by about 25% at subcooling of 6K compared to the weighted mean value of individual HSs and SHSs. For surfaces with short dividing distance (about 0.5 mm × 0.5 mm), the bridging effects between droplets in SHS regions were also observed, which is undesirable for heat transfer. These work indicates that strong adhesive force of SHSs can function as a promoter of droplet condensation for hybrid surfaces with proper choice of dividing width.     

Bubble Dynamics and Heat Transfer During Pool Boiling on Wettability Patterned Surfaces

Surfaces with spatial wettability patterns have been proven to enhance heat transfer coefficient and critical heat flux in pool boiling. To understand the physical mechanism behind this phenomenon and obtain the correlation among some critical parameters (bubble departure frequency, bubble size, nucleation site density, surface tension), pool boiling experiments were conducted. A Pyrex glass with a layer of indium-tin-oxide was used as the substrate. Hydrophobic patterns will serve as nucleation sites. Experiments were conducted in deionized water under atmospheric pressure at a relatively low heat flux. The processes of nucleation, growth, and departure of individual bubbles were visualized by using a high speed camera through the bottom of the heater surface. It has been found that the patterned surface performed the best in heat transfer for subcooled pool boiling when compared with hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces. The nucleation site density of the biphilic surface was much higher, when compared with that of the homogeneous surface. The individual bubbles always nucleate on the edge of the hydrophobic and hydrophilic area, and then move onto the hydrophobic pattern. Most of the individual bubbles detach from the wettability patterned surface in the diameter range from 300 µm to 450 µm (around 77.3%). The bubble departure periods scatter in the range from 80 ms to 1500 ms.     

空气含量和水侧污垢对凝汽器传热系数影响的数值分析

以N12180凝汽器为例,采用自行编制的程序数值计算了空气浓度和污垢对凝汽器汽侧传热系数、冷却管壁导热系数以及平均传热系数的影响,分析了空气与污垢对传热过程的影响机理。结果表明：凝汽器进口空气浓度从0增加到0．01％时,凝汽器平均传热系数降低30％;0．5mm的污垢厚度将使冷却管壁的导热系数降低98％,凝汽器平均传热系数降低85％。     

复式波纹板型一次表面回热器传热及阻力特性的研究

采用单吹瞬变法对自行设计的3种 CU 型一次表面回热器的传热与阻力特性进行了试验研究.建立了数学模型,由数值解求得流体的出口温度与时间及传热单元数 NTU 间的函数关系.通过配比,获得了换热表面在测定工况下的 NTU 值.在紧凑式回热器常用的 Rе=200～800范围内,获得3种 CU 表面的j因子和f因子的试验关联式.换热面当量直径仅为1.35～1.48 mm,属微小尺度,交错角为52.5°～67.5°.采用综合评价因子j/f对3种表面的性能进行了分析,结果表明 1 号试件表面具有较佳的性能.经误差分析,所提供的实验关联式的拟合误差不大于16%,具有足够的工程精度.     

Experimental Analysis of the Effects of Particulate Fouling on Heat Exchanger Heat Transfer and Air-Side Pressure Drop for a Hybrid Dry Cooler

It is well known that significant fouling by particulate matter can have a deleterious effect on the performance of enhanced surface heat exchangers, and the same is true for hybrid heat exchangers. Hybrid heat exchangers are heat exchangers that are typically run in dry mode to reject heat. When the ambient conditions require more heat rejection than can be provided by sensible heat transfer, a water pump is turned on and water flows over the fins, and the evaporation of water provides a further cooling effect. Fouling in dry-mode operation is physically similar to that of air-cooled heat exchangers, but in evaporative mode the flow of the water over the coil eliminates the impact of fouling. A hybrid dry cooler heat exchanger of 60 cm × 60 cm frontal area has been installed in a well-instrumented wind tunnel to measure the heat exchanger's performance. Hot water flows through the coil to provide the load, and air flows over the coil to provide cooling. During evaporative mode operation another stream of water flows over the outside face of the coil, adhering mainly to the louvered fins. The louvered fins are specially designed for optimized water flow during wetting mode. The fins are made of aluminum, the tubes are copper, and protection against corrosion is realized by a special E-coating. This coil has been tested clean and fouled with ASHRAE standard dust, for both dry and wet operation. Results are presented for the air-side pressure drop and overall heat transfer conductance of the coil under all conditions for which 50% increases in air-side pressure drop are found under heavy fouling. The influence of fouling on heat transfer is small. Also, using the wetting water to wash the fouling off the coil is investigated and is found to be of some limited utility.     

Comparison of Heat Transfer in Gravity-Driven Granular Flow near Different Surfaces

Heat transfer in gravity-driven granular flow has been encountered in many industrial processes, such as waste heat recovery and concentrated solar power. To understand more about Moving Bed Heat Exchanger(MBHE) applied in this field, numerical simulation was carried out for the characteristics of granular flow near different surfaces through discrete element method(DEM). In this paper, both the performances of particles motion and heat transfer were investigated. It's found that, even though the macroscopic granular flow is similar to fluid, there is still obvious discrete nature partly. The fluctuations of parameters in granular flow are inevitable which is more obvious in the circular tube cases. A special phenomenon, where competition motion is found, is resulted from discrete nature of particles. In terms of heat transfer, overall heat transfer coefficients for plate are higher than that of tube owing to better contact between particles and wall. However, due to competition motion, particles in high temperature tend to contact the tube, which is beneficial to heat transfer in some local zones. The heat transfer characteristics above will also affect the temperature distribution near the outlet of different geometries.     

Initiation of CASO4 Scale Formation on Heat Transfer Surfaces under Pool Boiling Conditions

The success of innovative fouling mitigation techniques such as ion implantation depends upon the early stage of scale formation on the heat transfer surface. This is because the first crystalline nuclei that appear on the surface during the initial period dictate how fouling would develop in latter stages. In this study, the initial period of deposition of calcium sulfate on heat transfer surfaces has been investigated under pool boiling conditions. The independent variables were heat flux and calcium sulfate concentration. The experimental results show that the time until the heat transfer coefficient reaches its intermediate maximum decreases with an increasing concentration and heat flux, and is also significantly affected by the surface finish. Neural network architectures were utilized to correlate the experimental results during the initial deposition period. A satisfactory agreement between predicted and measured heat transfer coefficients has been achieved with an average error of 8.7%.