Effect of actor depression on observer attributions: Existence and impact of negative attributions toward the depressed.

This experiment examined whether others explain the successes and failures of depressed versus nondepressed people differently and how these attributions are related to affective and behavioral reactions to a request for psychological help. Ss reported attributions about the success and failure experiences of hypothetical depressed and nondepressed people. Ss also responded to a hypothetical request for psychological help by indicating their attributions, affective reactions, willingness to help, and desire for future social contact. As hypothesized, Ss displayed more negative attributions toward depressed people. Replicating prior research (W. P. Sacco et al; see record 1986-12000-001), Ss responded to the depressive's request for help with mixed emotional and behavioral reactions. Path analyses revealed that attributions influenced affective reactions, which influenced willingness to help; but a more complex pattern emerged from the analysis of desire for future social contact. Results are discussed in terms of the interpersonal impact and possible causes of negative attributions about the experiences of depressed people. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social confirmation of dysphoria: Shared and private reactions to depression.

Investigated the social responses to dysphoria of 120 female undergraduates selected on the basis of their scores on the Beck Depression Inventory. Ss conversed for 15 min with persons selected for presence or absence of depressed mood. Following the conversations, mood measures (e.g., Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) were administered along with social perception questionnaires that were described either as confidential or to be shared with the other person. Ss who interacted with depressed persons were anxious, depressed, and hostile, and Ss rejected them. Contrary to predictions, Ss were willing to share their negative responses with the depressed persons. The depressed persons correctly anticipated rejection and reciprocated. It is argued that cognitive models of depression need to be integrated with a conception of the social environment as being active and responsive. Judgments of cognitive distortion cannot be made without an understanding of the feedback typically available from the social environment. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Previous personal experience and reactions to depression and physical disability.

Conducted 2 experiments with 121 undergraduates to examine the effects of prior experience with people with disability on interpersonal reactions to depression expressed by a person with a disability. In the 1st study, Ss rejected further involvement with the depressed person and perceived this person to be socially impaired. In the 2nd study, Ss ascribed significantly more negative personal characteristics to the depressed person and evidenced more stereotypic attitudes toward persons with disability than Ss who viewed the nondepressed person. Results provide evidence that prior personal experience with people with disability does not moderate negative reactions to social displays of depressive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social and interpersonal reactions to depression and disability.

Studied the reactions of 167 undergraduates to a 21-yr-old male actor with a physical disability who behaved in either a depressed or socially appropriate manner in an interview and appeared to be either physically disabled or nondisabled. Consistent with predictions, the actor was rated more favorably when he appeared disabled, and Ss had strong negative reactions to depressive behavior regardless of physical appearance. S attitudes toward persons with disability were affected by the interpersonal behavior of the target: Ss evidenced more open, accepting attitudes toward persons with disability after viewing appropriate behavior by the actor, and Ss in the depressed disabled condition endorsed more stereotypic, negative attitudes. Results are discussed in terms of "kindness norm" behavior and social models of depression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interpersonal consequences of depression: Responses to men and women enacting a depressed role.

To investigate interpersonal consequences of depressed behavior, telephone interactions were conducted between same- and opposite-sex pairs of 62 male and 64 female undergraduates. In each pair, one person enacted a depressed or nondepressed role. The content of the 2 roles differed only in the presence or absence of characteristically depressive affect and attitudes. Ratings of interest in further contact, personal rejection, and perceived impairment of role functioning all revealed a similar pattern: Depressed persons were more strongly rejected than nondepressed persons, especially by persons of the opposite sex. Interactions with depressed persons elicited significantly more depression in the listener than did interactions with nondepressed persons. Moreover, significantly more feminine traits were attributed to depressed than nondepressed persons. The responses of others to depressed individuals are discussed with respect to their implications for conceptualizing and treating depression. The results also have implications for the understanding of sex differences in the epidemiology of depression. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Initial symptom levels and the life-event–depression relationship.

93 undergraduates selected for diversity of initial depression levels were studied longitudinally to explore the relation between stressful events and depression. Ss were chosen on the basis of their scores on an information-processing procedure, the Beck Depression Inventory, the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia—Lifetime Version, and the SCL-90. After the initial screening, Ss completed a 2-hr interview covering current and lifetime diagnostic status and stressful life-event occurrence in the previous 12 mo. Following this, they participated in 4 regular monthly follow-ups. Regression analyses and inspection of individual patterns supported the hypothesis that initial depression status is a critical factor in depression–event associations and that concurrent high-impact negative events contribute significantly but modestly to outcomes. It appeared that nonsymptomatic Ss were relatively resistant to onset even when exposed to high-impact stress events, whereas a subset of initially symptomatic Ss continued to have both more depression and more high-impact events over time. It is suggested that future research on event–depression associations should carefully consider these different outcome patterns: symptom resistance and symptom onset in nondepressed persons and symptom remission and symptom maintenance or recurrence in initially depressed persons. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical impressions of depression and physical stigma.

Examined 58 rehabilitation psychology trainees' reactions to individuals who were varied in interpersonal behavior and physical stigma. According to traditional notions, graduate students in clinical and counseling psychology programs should differ from graduate students in a rehabilitation counseling program in their emotional and cognitive reactions to persons with physical disabilities. Alternatively, interpersonal models of depression suggest that all trainees should have more pronounced emotional reactions and different cognitive expectations of a person who displays depressive behavior. Affective reactions and clinical impressions of Ss were moderated neither by the nature of their training nor by the presence of physical stigma. Trainees reported more feelings of sadness after seeing the depressed targets, and also reported more negative expectations of these persons in counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression-related cognitions: Antecedent or consequence?

Measured depression-related cognitions and self-esteem in 998 adults who were followed for 1 yr. Ss completed a battery of tests including the Subjective Probability Questionnaire, Personal Beliefs Inventory, and Multidimensional Multiattributional Causality Scale. 63 Ss were depressed at the time of assessment, 85 became depressed during the follow-up period, and 115 had a history of depression but were not depressed at the initial assessment. Results are generally consistent with the hypothesis that depression-related cognitions arise concomitantly with an episode of depression. The currently depressed Ss differed from nondepressed Ss as expected; however, Ss who were to become depressed during the course of the study did not differ from controls on the cognitive measures. In addition, depressive cognitions did not seem to be permanent residuals of an episode. Although the depression-related cognitions did not predict future depression, they did predict improvement; depressed Ss with more negative cognitions were significantly less likely to improve during the follow-up period. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and the response of others: A re-evaluation.

Used a methodology similar to that employed by J. C. Coyne (see record 1976-22455-001) to determine whether depressed patients induce negative mood in others and elicit social rejection. 45 female undergraduates conversed for 20 min by telephone with either 15 depressed psychiatric women, 15 nondepressed psychiatric women, or 15 nondepressed women. Depression was assessed by the Self-Rating Depression Scale, and Ss were rated on the Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia. It was hypothesized that Ss who spoke with depressed Ss would report more negative mood (as assessed by the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List) and less willingness to interact further with their telephone partner than would Ss who spoke with nondepressed Ss. Results show that Ss were able to detect greater sadness and more problems in depressed Ss, although they themselves were not more depressed or more rejecting if they spoke with a depressed S. Present findings did not confirm those of Coyne. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When depression breeds contempt: Reassurance seeking, self-esteem, and rejection of depressed college students by their roommates.

To test J. C. Coyne's (1976) theory of depression, students' levels of depressive symptoms, reassurance seeking, and self-esteem were assessed at Time 1, and their same-gender roommates' apprasials of them were assessed 5 wks later. Mildly depressed students engaged in the type of reassurance seeking described by Coyne. Among men, but not women, mildly depressed Ss were rejected if they strongly sought reassurance and had low self-esteem but not if they did not seek reassurance or had high self-esteem. Although induction of depressed symptoms in roommates did occur, this contagion effect did not account for the depression-rejection relationship. The prediction that unsupportive, intolerant, or unempathic others would be particularly likely to respond with rejection to reassurance-seeking depressed Ss with low self-esteem received partial support. Implications for future work on the interpersonal aspects of depression are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison information and judgments about depression and seeking counseling.

Examined the effects of social comparison information, and the interaction of this information with symptom severity and sex, on 40 male and 40 female undergraduates' evaluations of depression symptoms and their willingness to seek counseling. Ss were administered the Depression Adjective Checklist—Form E (DACL—E) and the Attitudes Toward Seeking Professional Help Scale, as well as ratings of willingness to seek counseling and manipulation checks. A significant main effect was found on DACL—E scores for social comparison information. Ss who received serious social comparison information reported the highest depression scores. In addition, a significant interaction was found between social comparison information and sex of S in DACL—E scores. A significant main effect was also found on Ss' ratings of willingness to seek counseling for social comparison information and sex of S. Ss were more willing to seek counseling help when the social comparison information was serious. Also, female Ss were more willing to seek counseling than were male Ss. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison and depression: Company's effect on misery.

Two studies examined the social comparison processes of 50 depressed and 48 nondepressed college students selected on the basis of their scores on the Beck Depression Inventory. In the 1st study, Ss' preferences for information from others were assessed after they had received a manipulation intended to improve or worsen their mood states. The responses of the depressed Ss provide evidence of downward comparison: They indicate a preference for information from people who were experiencing negative affect, but only when they themselves were also experiencing relatively negative affect, not when their moods had been temporarily improved. In the 2nd study, Ss' moods were assessed before and after they had received information indicating another person was currently experiencing highly negative affect. This information had little effect on the nondepressed Ss; however, the mood states of the depressed Ss improved after they read the information. Results suggest that realizing that others are doing worse may help depressed persons to feel somewhat better. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cognition-emotion-action sequence: Anticipated emotional consequences of causal attributions and reported communication strategy.

84 to 90 5–12 yr olds were given scenarios that involved social rejection or a broken social engagement in a role-playing paradigm. The reasons for rejection were varied to be internal or external to the person being rejected, while the reasons for not appearing at an appointment were varied so that they were controllable or uncontrollable. Ss revealed whether they would communicate the true reasons for their outcomes and, if so, how much the other person's feelings would be hurt when rejected or how angry the person would be when stood up. Results show that for all age groups, there were strong associations between the causal properties of locus and controllability and the respective anticipated reactions of hurt feelings and anger. Correlations between anticipated affects and reported response strategy in this hypothetical situation varied as a function of age and the type of emotional anticipation, with older Ss stating that they would especially withhold causes that elicited anger. Data documented developmental changes in communication strategy rather than in the understanding of attributional determinants of affect. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Depression and perceived reinforcement: A reconsideration.

Evidence for the depressed S's hypersensitivity to any feedback about his performance and for the reversibility of depression-based perceptual deficits suggests that the depressed S can perceive response–reinforcement contingencies correctly, but only if given unassailable evidence of the efficacy of his actions. A high rate of response-contingent reinforcement is one instance of such evidence. The authors predicted that depressed Ss would misperceive skill task rewards under low- but not under high-reinforcement conditions. Changes in verbalized expectancies of success on skill and chance tasks at either 50 or 75% reinforcement rate were compared for 20 depressed and 20 nondepressed college students. Contrary to prediction, depressed Ss in no way differed from the nondepressed on the skill task at 50% reinforcement, and they produced larger expectancy changes on the chance task than did nondepressed Ss at 75% reinforcement. Results argue against the view that the depressed person misperceives response reinforcement contingencies, and they suggest instead that the depressed person overgeneralizes from any experience of success or failure in forming expectations for future successes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive distortion and cognitive errors in depressed psychiatric and low back pain patients.

Measured the tendency to make cognitive errors in 18 depressed psychiatric patients, 19 depressed low back pain (LBP) patients, 29 nondepressed LBP patients, and 23 nondepressed persons without LBP. Ss were administered 2 cognitive error questionnaires that focused in either general or LBP-related life experiences. These were designed to measure general cognitive distortion as well as 4 empirically derived dysphoric cognitive errors (catastrophizing, overgeneralization, personalization, and selective abstraction). Results indicate that all cognitive errors were endorsed significantly more strongly by depressed Ss with or without LBP. Although depressed LBP Ss made cognitive errors in interpreting many general experiences, they endorsed 3 out of 4 errors focused on LBP experiences significantly more strongly than depressed nonpain Ss. Findings suggest that depression in LBP patients is a function of both LBP and cognitive errors. Thus, cognitive therapy designed to correct cognitive errors may alleviate depression in LBP patients despite the persistence of pain. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From attribution to helping: An analysis of the mediating effects of affect and expectancy.

Applied the attributional model of motivation of B. Weiner et al (1971) to the study of helping behavior and predicted that willingness to help another person is influenced by the cause of the need and that the relationship between attribution and helping is mediated by affect and expectancy of future need. 80 undergraduates rated the likelihood that they would lend money to an acquaintance in each of 8 conditions in which causality varied along 3 dimensions: stability, locus, and control. Ss also rated their emotional reactions on 25 affect scales, selected from the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List, and estimated the likelihood that the person would require aid again in the future. ANOVA revealed that willingness to help was influenced primarily by the controllability of the cause. Consistent with the mediation hypothesis, a path analysis revealed that the effect of controllability on helping judgments was largely an indirect result of its influence on Ss' affective reactions to the request. The development of an attributional model of helping behavior is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Organizational and retrieval processes in person memory: An examination of processing objectives, presentation format, and the possible role of self-generated retrieval cues.

Examined memory for behavioral information under conditions in which the number of target persons and the number of behaviors pertaining to each target person were simultaneously varied. 256 undergraduates recalled more of the behavioral information when given a general impression set than when given a memory set, when the information was presented blocked by person than when it was presented randomly, and when they were tested immediately rather than after a delay. Impression-set Ss recalled more behaviors per person than memory-set Ss when the information was presented in a blocked format. However, they recalled more individual target persons and more behaviors per person when the information was presented in a random format. Results suggest that the specific nature of processing objectives and the constraints imposed by presentation format need to be considered carefully in developing future theoretical models of person memory. The role of self-generated retrieval cues and the possibility that there are 2 conceptually distinct types of retrieval are discussed. (44 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social-environmental factors in unipolar depression: Comparisons of depressed patients and nondepressed controls.

Examined the role of stress and coping factors in depression by comparing a group of 409 Ss (over age 18) entering psychiatric treatment for unipolar depression with a sociodemographically matched group of 409 nondepressed Ss. In addition to reporting significantly more stressful events than controls, depressed Ss also experienced more severe life strains associated with their own and their family members' physical illness, their family relationships, and their home and work situations. Depressed Ss were less likely to use problem-solving and more likely to use emotion-focused coping responses and had fewer and less supportive relationships with friends, family members, and co-workers. These group differences were consistent for both depressed women and men. Findings indicate the value of expanding the consideration of psychosocial factors in depression to include individuals' chronic strains and acute stressors as well as their coping responses and social resources. (53 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)