Internality, controllability, and the effectiveness of attributional interpretations in counseling.

Investigated an attributional approach to counseling in 2 studies. In Exp I, with 58 female and 24 male psychology students, the theoretical basis for the use of attributional interpretations was tested by giving Ss who had just received a negative social evaluation no information or information that stressed 1 of 4 types of causes: internal/controllable, internal/uncontrollable, external/controllable, and external/uncontrollable. Stressing internal/controllable causes produced more positive affective reactions and performance evaluations among internal locus of control respondents (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale), whereas externals were more variable in their responses. Exp II (24 Ss) assessed the generalizability of these findings by administering causal counseling to Ss who identified themselves as interpersonally anxious. Utilizing a quasi-counseling design, Ss were exposed to 1 of 2 interpretations emphasizing internal control or coping. Results of Exp II confirm initial conclusions that the effectiveness of causal counseling may depend on the individual's locus of control. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of locus of control on counseling expectations of clients.

Investigated the relation between clients' locus of control and expectations of therapeutic outcome among 67 clients (mean age 29 yrs) with mild neurotic problems. Clients were asked to estimate their likely success with therapists presented in a series of videotaped role plays. The role plays depicted the locus of control, sex, and social class of therapists. Results indicate that there was a significant interaction between clients' and therapists' locus of control in relation to clients' judgment of clinical success: Internal clients anticipated greater success with internal therapists, and external clients expected greater success with external therapists. Implications for the counseling process are discussed. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, interpersonal trust, and assertive behavior among newlyweds.

This study related 2 cognitive personality characteristics—locus of control and interpersonal trust—to assertive behavior in a sample of recently married couples. For 86 childless couples who had been in their 1st marriages for less than 1 yr, assertive behavior was measured by the Inventory of Marital Conflicts, an observational procedure in which couples resolve disagreements about hypothetical marital problems. Hypotheses were formulated in terms of individual locus of control (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) as well as 2 combinations of locus of control and interpersonal trust (Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale): internal–low trust and external–high trust. Results show that internal husbands were more assertive than external husbands in the marriage conflict situation, that external–high trust husbands were least assertive, and that internal–low trust wives were highly assertive. Findings are interpreted in light of previous locus-of-control and trust research, and in terms of unconventional marital role behavior. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teachers' attitudes and ascription of causation.

Investigated attitudes toward students and assignment of responsibility for student performance by 48 male and 48 female undergraduates acting as experimental teachers. Specifically, sex and locus of control of the teacher-Ss and ascribed performance and motivation of simulated students were studied for effects on teacher attitudes and assignment of responsibility for learning outcomes. Apparent student performance strongly affected both teacher attitudes and assignment of responsibility, while ascribed student motivation affected only teacher attitudes. Female Ss with internal locus of control assumed more responsibility for student performance than female Ss with external locus of control, but this expected finding was not observed in male Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control and college women's role expectations.

Hypothesized that college women's locus of control orientations would be related to their role expectations, with women with an external locus of control having lower aspirations, more conservative sex-role ideologies, and less involvement in career planning than women with an internal locus of control. 116 female college juniors and seniors completed a career expectation scale, the Adult Nowicki-Strickland Internal-External Control Scale (ANSIE), and an index of sympathy for women's liberation ideology. Regression analyses using ANSIE scores as the predictor variable supported the hypotheses. Compared to Ss with internal orientations, Ss with external orientations expected to have less commitment to their careers, to work for a smaller portion of their lives, and to feel more discomfort due to violating sex-role stereotypes. In addition, Ss with a more external orientation reported less career planning activity, less positive feelings about their future careers, and more conservative views on women's liberation ideology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Goal attainment, locus of control, and coping style in adolescent group counseling.

15 high school counselors conducted small group counseling sessions with 218 students. Client characteristics included sex, race, and competence as perceived by the counselor. Multiple measures of outcome included goal attainment (Kiresuk-Sherman Goal Attainment Scaling), locus of control (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale—I–E), and coping style (Tyler Behavioral Attributes of Psychosocial Competence). Multiple perspectives on outcome were provided by independent student and counselor goal attainment ratings. Students attained both personal and educational goals. Although counselors viewed internal students as achieving more goals, moderate I–E generally predicted goal attainment. Blacks differed from Whites in that externals gained the most goals. "Planfulness" of coping style was related to both student- and counselor-rated goal attainment, and students who attained most goals also responded most "planfully" on the postcounseling assessment of coping style. Results suggest that counseling should include teaching "planful" problem solving, and it should not overemphasize the students' internality. Finally, ways are suggested concerning how counseling approaches might be varied in relation to students' race and existing competencies. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Internal-external control and the attribution of responsibility under questionnaire and interview conditions.

Examined the effects of locus of control on attributional behavior in certain feedback situations by assigning 32 undergraduates to success or failure feedback conditions and asking them to complete a questionnaire and interview. A median split was performed on scores obtained from Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale, using H. L. Mirels' (1970) factors of personality internality to identify Ss as internals or externals. Results indicate that externals attributed more responsibility to impersonal external sources than did internals. This pattern was consistent across conditions. Measures of satisfaction and return for a 2nd interview suggested that the Ss were ego-involved in the task. The importance of attributional processes for counseling research and practice is stressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ecological constraints on internal representation: Resonant kinematics of perceiving, imagining, thinking, and dreaming.

Attempts a rapprochement between J. J. Gibson's (1961) ecological optics and a conviction that perceiving, imagining, thinking, and dreaming are similarly guided by internalizations of long-enduring constraints in the external world. Phenomena of apparent motion illustrate how alternating presentations of 2 views of an object in 3-dimensional space induce the experience of the simplest rigid twisting motion prescribed by kinematic geometry—provided that times and distances fall within certain lawfully related limits on perceptual integration. Resonance is advanced as a metaphor for not only how internalized constraints such as those of kinematic geometry operate in perception, imagery, apparent motion, dreaming, hallucination, and creative thinking, but also how such constraints can continue to operate despite structural damage to the brain. (5? p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measurement of attribution of causality in counselor behavior.

Describes a set of process scales (Locus of Control Content Scales, Locus of Control Counselor Style Scale, and Problem Solving Scale) developed for use in the study of group counseling. Three of the process scales were designed to rate counselors' references to locus of control, and a 4th scale recorded frequency of problem-solving statements. The locus of control scales differentiated between conveying attitudes about causality through the content of a counselor's statements vs through the style in which he or she interacted with the group. Results of 6 high school counselors working with 96 students indicate that counselors are not consistent in their use of style and content in expressing ideas about causality. Counselor statements tended to imply that students had the resources to solve their own problems (internal content) but provided the students with solutions rather than allowing them to decide on a course of action (external style). Appropriate reliability coefficients and suggestions for designing research using these process scales are given. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Constraints on View Combination: Effects of Self-Occlusion and Differences Among Familiar and Novel Views.

The use of multiple familiar views of objects to facilitate recognition of novel views has been addressed in a number of behavioral studies, but the results have not been conclusive. The present study was a comprehensive examination of view combination for different types of novel views (internal or external to the studied views) and different objects (amoeboid objects and objects composed of geons; objects with and without self-occlusion across rotation). The authors found that the advantage gained from the study of 2 views was more than the generalization from each of the studied views presented alone. This facilitation occurred only for internal views but not external views. In addition, the benefits from the study of 2 views diminished when (a) the studied views did not share the same visible features and when (b) the studied views were separated by a small angular difference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How people see others is different from how people see themselves: A replicable pattern across cultures.

Consensus studies from 4 cultures—in Belgium, the Czech Republic, Estonia, and Germany—as well as secondary analyses of self- and observer-reported Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) data from 29 cultures suggest that there is a cross-culturally replicable pattern of difference between internal and external perspectives for the Big Five personality traits. People see themselves as more neurotic and open to experience compared to how they are seen by other people. External observers generally hold a higher opinion of an individual's conscientiousness than he or she does about him- or herself. As a rule, people think that they have more positive emotions and excitement seeking but much less assertiveness than it seems from the vantage point of an external observer. This cross-culturally replicable disparity between internal and external perspectives was not consistent with predictions based on the actor–observer hypothesis because the size of the disparity was unrelated to the visibility of personality traits. A relatively strong negative correlation (r = ?.53) between the average self-minus-observer profile and social desirability ratings suggests that people in most studied cultures view themselves less favorably than they are perceived by others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, instructions, and verbal conditioning on self-referenced affect in a counseling interview.

Examined the relationships between locus of control, specificity of instruction, and verbal conditionability on self-referenced affect in a counseling analog interview. 118 female undergraduates were administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. On the basis of scores tabulated for H. L. Mirels's factor of personal internality, 40 Ss were classified as internals or externals and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: general instructions or specific instructions. All Ss then participated in an interview with a counselor. The interview was divided into 3 sections: baseline, conditioning, and extinction. During the conditioning period, the counselor verbalized self-referenced affect and reflection of feeling on a 2-min interval schedule. Results indicate that specific instructions combined with verbal conditioning procedures produced the greatest increase in self-referenced affect for both internal and external Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to the directive and instigational functions of instructions on internal/external Ss. Implications for future research are outlined. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Client locus of control, problem perception, and interview behavior.

Administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale to 50 21–27 yr old clients at a university counseling center and asked Ss to list all their problems in order of priority. Problems were subsequently classified on an external–internal dimension. Analysis of the relationship of Ss' locus of control (LOC) and interview initiative was based on a subsample of 20 Ss whose initial interview was recorded. Findings show that Ss' LOC was related to the extent to which they assumed initiative and became behaviorally involved in directing the interview process. However, contrary to expectations, counselor control did not moderate this relation. It is suggested that internally oriented clients are more likely to assume initiative in the interview and attempt to redirect the treatment process in a direction preferred by them. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control and discrimination ability with lay counselors.

Hypothesized that structured training would increase the ability to discriminate helpful counseling conditions and cause a shift toward the internal dimension of locus of control with an associated increase in trust, insight, and self-confidence. Data from 21 senior female nursing staff support the hypothesis and suggest that locus of control measures may be useful as selection devices to optimize training effectiveness with lay counselors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student locus of control and response to expectations about self and teacher.

85 female undergraduates with either an internal or external locus of control (LOC) (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) were used to investigate the relationship between LOC and responsivity to expectations regarding their own and their teacher's competence. Internal and external Ss, acting as students, were led to expect that they would perform well or poorly on a lesson and independently to expect that their teacher was competent or incompetent. After receiving a standardized lesson from a confederate acting as teacher, Ss' attitudes and performance were assessed. As predicted, internal Ss were more receptive to the expectation regarding self than external Ss. In contrast, the teacher expectation manipulation had no differential effect on internal and external Ss. Results suggest that students respond both to expectations about themselves and about their teacher and that LOC plays an important role in determining how an individual responds to such expectations. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Chronic strain, locus of control, and distress in older adults.

In this study, I examined whether locus of control beliefs buffer or mediate the impact of chronic financial strain on psychological well-being. Data are from a longitudinal survey of a random community sample of older adults. Findings suggest that elderly people with internal locus of control beliefs are less likely to suffer from the deleterious effects of chronic financial strain than are older adults with external locus of control orientations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An organizational model of choice: a theoretical analysis differentiating choice, personal control, and self-determination

Individuals experience choice when they select one option from among meaningful alternatives that possess relatively equal attractiveness and some degree of indeterminacy. Choice has been found to influence important psychological and behavioral outcomes. After differentiating among choice, personal control, and self-determination, the author offers a model of choice, with self-determination as the key mechanism regulating how choice influences intrinsic motivation. The model suggests specific types of choice-relevant information that should affect whether choice results in an internal (self-determined) or external (controlled) locus of causality. The individual characteristics of locus of control, self-presentation, self-esteem, and Type A personality are suggested as possible moderators of the effects of choice. Finally, the implications of the choice model for organizations and further areas of research are discussed.     

Relationship of core self-evaluations traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability—with job satisfaction and job performance: A meta-analysis.

This article presents meta-analytic results of the relationship of 4 traits—self-esteem, generalized self-efficacy, locus of control, and emotional stability (low neuroticism)—with job satisfaction and job performance. With respect to job satisfaction, the estimated true score correlations were .26 for self-esteem, .45 for generalized self-efficacy, .32 for internal locus of control, and .24 for emotional stability. With respect to job performance, the correlations were .26 for self-esteem, .23 for generalized self-efficacy, .22 for internal locus of control, and .19 for emotional stability. In total, the results based on 274 correlations suggest that these traits are among the best dispositional predictors of job satisfaction and job performance. T. A. Judge, E. A. Locke, and C. C. Durham's (1997) theory of core self evaluations is used as a framework for discussing similarities between the 4 traits and their relationships to satisfaction and performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple outcome evaluation of a life-career development course.

Examined the multiple effects of a life-career development course on 74 university students. The treatment was based on a comprehensive counseling model of "change agent career decision making." A modification of D. T. Campbell and J. C. Stanley's (1963) institutional cycle design and MANOVA was used for evaluating Ss' performance on 8 career inventories. The Ss were significantly more rational and less intuitive and dependent in their decision-making styles, more certain of their major and career choices, and more crystallized in their vocational self-concept. They also collected more career information and had fewer vocational identity problems as a result of the course. Inconsistent results were found with regard to the external locus of control and overcoming career barriers measures. The treatment did not seem to have an immediate impact on internal locus of control. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An investigation of age-related factors in the age-job-satisfaction relationship.

Most researchers have found a positive linear relation between age and job satisfaction. We attempted to account for this relationship by measuring variables that had been proposed to be causal factors. Subjects were 496 city and county managers working in Florida. Potential explanatory variables were (a) job congruence (the difference between what managers prefer and what they perceive they have in a job), (b) internal–external locus of control, and (c) related demographics—age, salary, organizational tenure, position tenure, and organizational level. Multiple regression analyses found that job congruence and work locus of control accounted for almost all of the variance in the age–satisfaction relationship. This study supports the job change hypothesis, which proposes that older workers get more of what they want out of work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)