Transformational supervision: When supervisors mentor.

Can a psychologist simultaneously fill the roles of clinical supervisor and mentor to a trainee? What are the implications of adding a mentoring component to a supervisory relationship? Like academic advising, supervision need not incorporate a mentoring function. However, the author hypothesizes that, all things considered, it is better for supervisees, and probably supervisors and training sites, too, when supervising psychologists engage supervisees in connected, collaborative, and increasingly reciprocal developmental relationships. There are numerous implications of mentoring-infused or transformational supervision, not the least of which is the inescapable tension between the supervisor's mentoring and evaluative roles. The author calls for concerted research and practice development in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group versus individual assertion training.

16 nonassertive community women (mean age 39.1 yrs) participated in a study that compared the effectiveness of group assertion therapy with the effectiveness of individual assertion therapy. A clinical treatment procedure that included behavioral rehearsal, modeling, and coaching was used in both treatment modalities. Prior research using almost identical treatment procedures, screening requirements, and assessment batteries demonstrated the greater effectiveness of this therapeutic procedure as compared with a no-treatment control condition, in which Ss did not change over time. Results of this study indicate that there are no significant differences between group versus individual assertion training. Pre-, post-, and 3-mo follow-up measures (e.g., Rathus Assertiveness Schedule, S–R Inventory of General Trait Anxiousness) demonstrated that both treatments were effective in increasing assertive behavior skills and in reducing hostility and anger. When compared with the no-treatment control condition of an earlier comparable study, the 2 treatment conditions of the present study are shown to be superior. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peer versus professional models for study skills training.

Compared a peer model and professional model for teaching study skills to college freshmen. 17 freshmen in the professional model received 10 hrs of instruction in study skills in 2 groups taught by 1 professional. In the peer model, freshmen were divided into 16 pairs of tutors and tutees. The tutors learned the study skills in 5 90-min weekly seminars. Between meetings, the tutors individually taught these skills to the tutees. Ss in both models significantly improved study skills relative to attention and waiting-list control groups. The peer model was as effective as the professional model in study skills change. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in supervision as counselors and supervisors gain experience: A review.

Reviews research bearing on whether and how counselors and supervisors receive or give different types of supervision of psychotherapy as they each gain experience. Most theories describing changes in supervision of counselors as they gain experience are similar. They posit changes in the supervisee, with supervision environments being matched to the changing needs of the supervisee. There are 3 theories concerning how the supervisor changes as he/she gains experience. Empirical findings are consistent with theories of counselor development but only weakly supportive of the theory that actual supervision environments are matched to supervisee needs. Empirical findings on changes in supervisors as they gain experience reveal few differences in supervisors at any level beyond the master's degree. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effectiveness of individual counseling by professional and peer helpers for family caregivers of the elderly.

This study of the effectiveness of individual counseling for daughters and daughters-in-law (N?=?87) who were the primary caregivers for frail elderly parents revealed that participants who received professional counseling demonstrated significantly better outcomes than a no-treatment control group in regard to subjective well-being, level of psychiatric symptomatology, and perceived change in aspects of the caregiver–care-receiver relationship. Participants who received peer counseling demonstrated similar gains but did not improve significantly more than did control subjects in subjective well-being. Both forms of counseling had no significant effect on caregivers' formal and informal social support networks. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dyadic versus individual training protocols: Loss and reacquisition of a complex skill.

It has been consistently demonstrated that the active interlocked modeling (AIM) protocol, a dyadic training protocol developed by W. L. Shebilske, J. W. Regian, W. Arthur, Jr., and J. A. Jordan (1992), achieves a 100% increase in training efficiency over a standard individual protocol. The present study sought to replicate this finding as well as to investigate its robustness in terms of skill loss and reacquisition. Thus, the authors compared the AIM-dyad protocol with a standard individual protocol. Despite half as much hands-on practice, dyadic trainees did not differ from individuals on tests of skill acquisition, loss after an 8-week nonpractice interval, and reacquisition of a complex skill. The findings provide strong support and justification for the ongoing use of innovative dyadic protocols for the training of pilots and navigators in both military and nonmilitary settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sexual behavior between clinical supervisors and trainees: Implications for professional standards.

Comments that sexual behavior between clinical supervisors and trainees presents a challenge to professional psychology. At least 4 areas need attention: the prevalence and nature of such sexual contact, its effects on clinical training, ethical implications, and the potential legal liability of supervisors who engage in sexual intimacies with trainees. The extent to which sexual behavior in the supervisory relationship may have negative effects on the teaching and learning of professional skills remains unknown until it becomes a legitimate subject of research and discussion. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple relations in supervision: Guidance for administrators, supervisors, and students.

As fiduciaries, supervisors are to act on behalf of their supervisees; there are at least 10 provisions in the American Psychological Association Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2002) that provide guidance for those in this role. Unfortunately, there are many questions the APA Ethics Code does not answer with regard to multiple relations in supervision. The authors address a variety of problems that can arise in this professional context and offer guidance for administrators, practitioners, and students. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Application of social-learning theory to training supervisors through behavioral modeling.

40 male first-line supervisors were randomly assigned to a behavioral modeling training program or to a control group. The training was designed to improve supervisors' interpersonal skills in dealing with their employees. The training program produced highly favorable trainee reactions, which were maintained over time. Moreover, the performance of the trainees was significantly better than that of supervisors in the control group on a learning test administered 6 mo after training, on behavioral simulations collected 3 mo after training, and on performance ratings collected on the job 1 yr after training. After the control group received the training, they achieved significant improvement in their supervisory skills and did not differ from the trainees who had originally undergone the training on any of the measures. The modeling films, developed by M. Sorcher (A. Goldstein and M. Sorcher, 1974) were based primarily on A. Bandura's (1977) principles of social-learning theory. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Training graduate students to be clinical supervisors: A survey of Canadian professional psychology programmes.

Recognising the need for training in clinical supervision, the Canadian Psychological Association (CPA) requires that accredited professional psychology programmes offer graduate students training in supervision. To fill a gap in the existing supervision literature, we surveyed training directors (or designates) of CPA accredited clinical and counselling programmes to understand how this training standard is currently being met in the area of clinical supervision. Responses were obtained from 20 of 28 programmes (71.4% response rate). Approximately 50% of respondents indicated that their programmes required some coursework related to clinical supervision, with wide variability, however, in the number of hours of coursework provided to students (range 3 to 39). Most courses included lectures and group discussion, but also often provided students with practical experience in clinical supervision provision. Only 25% of programmes required a practicum in which students gained experience in clinically supervising other students, although an additional 40% of programmes offered an elective practicum in which students gained some training in clinical supervision. Most programmes (~71%) identified strategies for improving training in clinical supervision (e.g., improving course work, requiring practical experience), but also identified challenges to offering clinical supervision training (e.g., availability of skilled supervisors, insufficient time to devote to supervision, student competency). Based on the findings, we offer some recommendations for how training in clinical supervision could be improved in Canadian professional psychology programmes as well as describe some important directions for future research in this area. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cooperative peer interaction versus individual competition and individualistic efforts: Effects on the acquisition of cognitive reasoning strategies.

Compared the relative effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic goal structures on (a) achievement and (b) the acquisition of high-level cognitive reasoning strategies. Reasoning strategies involved in categorization and retrieval, language development, and mathematical tasks were examined. In the cooperative condition, Ss worked with peers of equal or diverse abilities. In the competitive condition Ss competed with peers of equal or diverse abilities. 86 1st-grade children were randomly assigned to conditions stratified by sex and academic ability. Results indicate that cooperative interaction, compared with competitive and individualistic learning, promoted higher achievement and the discovery of superior cognitive reasoning strategies. No differential effects were found concerning whether Ss were cooperating or competing with peers of equal, lower, or higher ability. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dispositional empathy in scientists and practitioner psychologists: Group differences and relationship to self-reported professional effectiveness.

Dispositional empathy, job satisfaction, and perceived effectiveness at a variety of professional activities were assessed in a sample of 290 psychologists. The participants were randomly chosen from four divisions of the American Psychological Association. Analyses indicated that psychologists from divisions chosen to represent a "Practitioner" orientation (Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy), compared to psychologists from divisions chosen to represent a "scientist" orientation (Evaluation, Measurement, and Statistics), scored lower on personal distress. For females only, practitioner status was also associated with higher scores on empathic concern and perspective taking. Also, regardless of sex, among participants who reported regularly engaging in therapy, higher scores on empathic concern and perspective-taking, and lower scores on personal distress, were associated with greater satisfaction with therapeutic work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Use of trait labels in counseling supervision by experienced and inexperienced supervisors.

On the basis of attribution theory, it was hypothesized that as supervisors gain experience at counseling, they would attribute their supervisee's counseling behaviors less often to counselor traits than would supervisors who have little or no counseling experience. 10 min of an audiotaped counseling session were presented to 82 Ss in 4 groups: undergraduate psychology students, master's degree students in counseling and clinical psychology, post-master's degree students, and post-PhD counselors. The Ss then rated the degree to which the counselor could be described by 8 trait labels. As predicted, Ss with more counseling experience made weaker trait attributions than did those with little or no experience. It is suggested that this result is due to the increased empathy of experienced counselors. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach.

Describes the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) and its relationships with measures of social functioning, self-esteem, emotionality, and sensitivity to others. 677 male and 667 female undergraduates served as Ss. Each of the 4 IRI subscales displayed a distinctive and predictable pattern of relationships with these measures, as well as with previous unidimensional empathy measures. Findings provide evidence for a multidimensional approach to empathy. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Modeling and instructions in training for counselor empathy.

Assessed the relative contributions of modeling and instructions to training of counselor empathy in a factorial design incorporating 2 instruction conditions (instructions or no instructions) and 3 modeling conditions (high-empathy model, low-empathy model, or no model). Ss were 68 clergymen from various religious denominations. Ss wrote responses to a taped client in Phase 1, a training phase, and conducted an interview with a client (actor) in Phase 2, a generalization phase. Instructions had no effect on empathy offered by Ss, but Ss hearing a high-empathy model showed significantly higher empathy in Phase 1 responses than all other Ss. Findings were not significant in Phase 2. Reasons for lack of generalization and implications for further research and training are noted. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The supervision relationship: Variables contributing to positive versus negative experiences.

We present pilot data on variables that influence interaction between trainees and supervisors and contribute to positive versus negative experiences in psychotherapy supervision. Subjects were two groups of supervisor/trainee dyads in which trainees had reported very positive or very negative supervision experiences. We found agreement on the quality of supervision experience between pair members. Trainees had positive supervision experiences when they were seen as interested in the supervisor's feedback. Trainees preferred supportive, instructional, and interpretive supervisors. Similarity in theoretical orientation and interpretive style contributed to positive experiences. A model combining variables to predict the quality of supervision experiences is presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Problem solving: A model for supervision in professional psychology.

Reviews literature on problem-solving models, their application to psychology and other fields, models of supervision, and supervision in psychology. The following processes are addressed: problem identification, generation of alternative solutions, solution evaluation, decision making, performance, and outcome evaluation. Implementation of the problem-solving model and possible sources of difficulty are discussed. This model has the advantages of being atheoretical, systematic, and appropriate for use in clinical, counseling, and school psychology. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competency in integrative psychotherapy: Perspectives on training and supervision.

Increasingly, many psychotherapists identify with an integrative approach to psychotherapy. In recent years, more attention has been directed toward the operationalization and evaluation of competence in professional psychology and health care service delivery. Aspects of integrative psychotherapy competency may differ from competency in other psychotherapy orientations, although convergence is more often the case. Despite the potential differences, there exist very few formal training programs or guidelines to systematically guide clinicians in developing a competent integrative practice. This paper attempts to distill the essential elements of competent integrative psychotherapy practice and focuses on how these might be developed in training and supervision. We address most of these complex issues from a specific integrative perspective: principle-based assimilative integration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of self-reported distress and empathy on egoistic versus altruistic motivation to help.

Proposed that a distinction be made between 2 emotional responses to seeing another person suffer—personal distress and empathy—and that these 2 emotions lead to 2 different kinds of motivation to help: Personal distress leads to egoistic motivation; empathy, to altruistic motivation. These distinctions were tested in 3 studies, each using 10 male and 10 female undergraduates. Across the 3 studies, factor analysis of Ss' self-reported emotional response indicated that feelings of personal distress and empathy, although positively correlated, were experienced as qualitatively distinct. The pattern of helping in Studies 1 and 2 indicated that a predominance of personal distress led to egoistic motivation, whereas a predominance of empathy led to altruistic motivation. In Study 3, the cost of helping was made especially high. Results suggest an important qualification on the link between empathic emotion and altruistic motivation: Ss reporting a predominance of empathy displayed an egoistic pattern of helping. Apparently, making helping costly evoked self-concern, which overrode any altruistic impulse produced by feeling empathy. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Aristotle and epistemology: Implications for professional psychological training.

In this article I propose that epistemological considerations are crucial to effective training. Present-day epistemologies have arisen in response to social and economic forces rather than to an a priori consideration of psychology's understanding of knowledge. Aristotle's epistemology can be used as an example, and the implications for psychology and training are explored. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)