Delay of gratification as a function of incentive preference and race of experimenter.

Offered 14 incentive items to 133 black and 85 white 7-12 yr olds. Each S could choose 1 of 4 "inexpensive" items ($.05-.08) to receive at the end of the school day on which the test was given, or 1 of 10 "expensive" items ($.25-.35) to receive 3 wks later. The black and the white Ss differed in their preferences for expensive incentive objects. No statistically reliable differences were found between the black and the white Ss in ability to delay gratification. Results are contrasted with those obtained by B. R. Strickland (see record 1972-24694-001). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Delay of gratification, motivation for the prohibited gratification, and responses to temptation.

Yielding to temptation, in a situation in which attainment of achievement rewards is contingent upon deviant (cheating) behavior, was conceptualized to be a function of (a) the strength of the motivation to attain the prohibited gratification, and (b) the inability to delay immediate gratification. 6th-grade boys participated in an experimentally controlled "shooting gallery" game of skill in which attainment of achievement rewards (prizes) was contingent upon the child's falsifying his own scores. Motivation for the prohibited gratification was inferred from "n Achievement" scores: preference for immediate, smaller (ImR) or delayed, larger (DelR) rewards in choice situations was the index of the ability to delay gratification. Achievement motivation was related to the S's producing sufficiently deviant scores to obtain an achievement reward, and preference for DelR was related negatively to the amount of cheating and positively to the latency of cheating, i.e., the number of trials before the occurrence of the 1st deviation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in self-stimulation preference as a function of incentive of alternative rewards.

Tested 24 male Wistar rats on a 23-hr food and water deprivation schedule for preference between lever pressing for electrical stimulation of the lateral hypothalamus and liquid rewards, which varied in taste and caloric content. Preference for self-stimulation diminished as the alternative liquid became more palatable: with a saccharine-glucose solution as the alternative, Ss showed an equal preference for hypothalamic stimulation and the liquid reward. In longer 6-hr tests, Ss deprived of water for 24 and 48 hr. initially showed a preference for self-stimulation over water but eventually satisfied their water deficit by pressing for water. Neglect of physiological needs during self-stimulation appears to be more a function of the alternatives available and the length of the test session than intrinsic properties of the brain stimulation. (French summary) (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The development and implications of a personal problem-solving inventory.

Examines the dimensions underlying the applied problem-solving process, describes the development of a problem-solving instrument based on factor-analysis results, and delineates initial reliability and validity estimates of the instrument. Data were collected from 4 samples of students (ns?=?150, 62, 31, and 18). Factor analysis revealed 3 distinct constructs: Problem-Solving Confidence, Approach–Avoidance Style, and Personal Control. Reliability estimates of the 32 items revealed that the constructs were internally consistent and stable over time. Initial estimates of validity suggest that the instrument is measuring constructs that are (a) amenable to change through specific skill training in problem solving, (b) unrelated to conceptualizing means to solving hypothetical problems, (c) related to general perceptions of problem-solving skills, (d) unrelated to intelligence or social desirability, and (e) related to personality variables, most notably locus of control. The investigation has implications for research on the personal problem-solving process and provides an instrument that is easily administered and scored. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Delay of gratification, need for achievement, and acquiescence in another culture.

The present research extends the knowledge of that found in other investigations (Levine, et al, 1957, 1959; Singer, et al, 1956; Spivack, et al, 1959) regarding the capacity to delay gratification and the implication for ego psychology. The present research utilizes direct measures of approach to delay or not immediate gratification, as gleaned from a conflict situation, and relates this to need for achievement (as measured from fantasy material as described by McClelland, et al, 1953) and acquiescence (Bass, 1956). Trinidadian Ss were utilized; the postulated positive relationship between the capacity for delay and the need for achievement, and the inverse relationship between capacity to delay and acquiescence, were found. The study also points up a methodologically simple way of getting at capacity for delay which may be used cross-culturally. From Psyc Abstracts 36:04:4HJ43M. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework.

Executive function (EF) accounts have now been offered for several disorders with childhood onset (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, autism, early-treated phenylketonuria), and EF has been linked to the development of numerous abilities (e.g., attention, rule use, theory of mind). However, efforts to explain behavior in terms of EF have been hampered by an inadequate characterization of EF itself. What is the function that is accomplished by EF? The present analysis attempts to ground the construct of EF in an account of problem solving and thereby to integrate temporally and functionally distinct aspects of EF within a coherent framework. According to this problem-solving framework, EF is a macroconstruct that spans 4 phases of problem solving (representation, planning, execution, and evaluation). When analyzed into subfunctions, macroconstructs such as EF permit the integration of findings from disparate content domains, which are often studied in isolation from the broader context of reasoning and action. A review of the literature on the early development of EF reveals converging evidence for domain-general changes in all aspects of EF. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reinforcing math with more math: Choosing special academic activities as a reward for academic performance.

Conducted 2 studies to assess the practical utility of using special academic activities to reinforce academic performance and to determine whether offering the child free choice of these special activities would further increase his or her performance. Results from Exp I with 48 4th graders and Exp II with 16 4th graders support the use of special academic activities as successful reinforcers of academic productivity, but gave only minimal support to choice as an effective reinforcer. There was some evidence, however, that if choice is to serve as a reinforcer, it may do so best when the activities made available to the child are of at least moderate interest. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preference for delayed reward as a function of age, intelligence, and length of delay interval.

"Using a simple choice measure of preference for delayed reward on elementary school children… ranging in age from 5 to 12, and under five different lengths of delay interval, the following hypotheses were tested and confirmed: (a) preference for delayed reward is positively related to age; (b) positively to intelligence; (c) and negatively to length of the delay interval… . An additional finding was that subjects preferring the immediate reward tend to have more variable future time perspectives and that length of time perspective is slightly related to IQ, but not to age." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Harnessing the need for immediate gratification: Cognitive reconstrual modulates the reward value of temptations.

Many of us succumb to temptations, despite knowing that we will later regret doing so. How can such behavior be avoided? In three studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that reconstruing temptation as a test of a valued internal quality ("willpower") would decrease the tendency to succumb by reducing the appeal of the temptation. In Study 1, participants who construed a challenging handgrip task as a test of willpower resisted the temptation to terminate the painful task longer than participants who did not. In Study 2, participants performed a handgrip task twice. Only participants who changed their construal of the task into a test of willpower improved their performance. In Study 3, participants took a timed math test while being tempted by comedy clips. Participants who reconstrued the situation as willpower test compared with participants who did not, (a) enjoyed the videos less, and (b) were better able to resist the tempting videos. These studies demonstrate that cognitive reconstrual can be used to modify reward contingencies, so that succumbing to temptation becomes less appealing, and resisting temptation becomes more appealing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual recognition as a function of anxiety, motivation, and the testing situation.

The hypothesis was made that degree of anxiety and motivation would influence S's performance on tasks measuring skill in discovering objects embedded in a stimulus field, particularly as the situation was structured to be stressful or not. Ss low in anxiety and high in motivation performed significantly better than Ss high in anxiety but with low motivation. In the nonstressful situation, Ss low in anxiety and motivation performed significantly poorer than their counterparts. It is recommended, therefore, that situational task variables be considered as crucial factors in analysing behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Procedural preference as a function of conflict intensity.

Conducted 2 studies with college students to examine procedural preferences in conflict situations that, unlike the conflicts in most procedural justice work, permit concession exchange. In this conflict setting, disputants have been found to prefer procedures that provide them with a share of decision control as well as complete process control. Among competitively motivated disputants, bargaining strength is shown to qualify these preferences, in that weak-case disputants want the least 3rd-party involvement. Exp I, with 126 Ss, demonstrated the robustness of disputants' preferences for process control, because an autocratic procedure receives unfavorable ratings independently of the opportunity for concession exchange. Exp II showed that disputants confronted with integrative settlement options prefer bargaining over mediation and arbitration. It is concluded that findings support the claim that conflict structure must be considered in any attempt to predict disputants' procedural preferences. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Overjustification and children's intrinsic motivation: Comparative effects of four rewards.

Studied the relative overjustifying effects of various types of rewards on 30 boys' and 30 girls' (mean ages 72.6 and 72.4 mo, respectively) intrinsic motivation. Four reward procedures were examined—tangible, verbal, symbolic, and self-administered symbolic (self) rewards. Ss attempted to solve mazes under 1 of 5 training conditions and were then given a free-play period in which to engage in further maze play or try other materials. Ss receiving tangible rewards and those who self-administered symbolic rewards (self-reward) showed less subsequent intrinsic motivation than Ss in the control, verbal reward, and symbolic reward conditions. Moreover, internal locus-of-control expectancies (Stanford Preschool Internal–External Scale) were inversely related to intrinsic motivation for Ss in the self-reward condition. Results are discussed from 2 perspectives—the intrinsic–extrinsic reward continuum and E. L. Deci's (1975) distinction between the controlling (detrimental) and informational (competence- and motivation-enhancing) aspects of rewards. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Choosing to be afraid: Preferences for fear as a function of goal pursuit.

According to an instrumental approach to emotion regulation (M. Tamir, in press), people may not always prefer to feel pleasant emotions and avoid unpleasant ones. Instead, they may be motivated to experience even unpleasant emotions when they might be useful for goal attainment. Given that fear serves to promote successful avoidance, these studies tested this hypothesis by examining preferences for fear in preparation for avoidance goal pursuits. Consistent with the predictions of the instrumental approach, participants preferred to increase their level of fear as they prepared to pursue an avoidance goal. Such preferences were higher than preferences for either excitement or anger and were unique to avoidance (vs. approach or confrontational) goal pursuits. Given the aversive nature of fear, these findings clearly demonstrate that people may sometimes prefer to feel bad if doing so can lead to instrumental benefits. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in group problem-solving behavior and effectiveness as a function of abstractness.

Classes of undergraduates and classes of graduate management students who were experienced managers were administered the O'Connor Abstractness Orientation Scale, a structural cognitive style measure. The 5 highest and lowest scorers in each of 20 class sections were assigned to abstract and concrete problem-solving groups, respectively. Concrete groups required almost twice as long as abstract groups to complete the assigned task (p?≤?.001). Compared to concrete groups, abstract group Ss interacted at a faster pace and demonstrated better cue utilization (p?≤?.001). No differences were found between undergraduate and graduate groups. Results are consistent with findings from prior research on concreteness–abstractness or cognitive complexity. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Controlling personal rewards: Professional teachers' differential use of feedback and the effects of feedback on the student's motivation to perform.

Conducted 3 experiments with 104 children in kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grade to test hypotheses derived from the proposition that teachers criticize low-expectation students in order to control their personal reinforcement schedules. Results show the following: (a) Teachers' expectations for and perceptions of control over student performance were found to be significantly positively related, even when student sex and IQ (as assessed by the Metropolitan Achievement Test) were controlled. (b) The removal of academic criticism in the 1st- and 2nd-grade classes increased academic initiations by highly criticized students relative to other students. (c) Ss' perceptions of the covariation between effort and outcome was negatively related to amount of criticism received after seeking out the teacher for academic reasons. It is suggested that because low-expectation students' feedback may be less contingent on the outcome of a specific performance, low-expectation students become less motivated to perform well in the future. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in problem-solving performance as a function of attitude differences.

Men make significantly higher scores than women on a scale of attitudes toward problem solving. Attitude scores "have some positive relationship to performance scores." From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:1GD56C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Preference for alcohol consumption as a function of amount and delay of alternative reward.

Sixty male normal drinkers were placed in a choice situation with two behavioral alternatives; one produced access to alcohol consumption, and one produced access to opportunities to win money on a probabilistic dice throw task. Any alcohol chosen was available during the session, and constraints on access to it were held constant. Two independent variables involving constraints on access to money were manipulated in a 2?×?3 factorial design: (a) amount of money available, which was determined by the probability of a "win" on the dice throw task (either .17 or .83), and (b) delay in receipt of any money won (either no delay, a 2-week delay, or an 8-week delay). The main dependent measures were the proportion of responses allocated to gain access to alcohol, response-outcome expectancies, and mood state. Subjects' preferences for alcohol varied positively with delay but were not significantly influenced by the money-amount manipulation. Subjects' choice behavior was not related to mood states or expectations. The results partially replicate those of an earlier experiment and lend credence to a formulation of the determinants of drinking behavior based on behavioral theories of choice. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Displacement of preference as a function of avoidance-avoidance conflict.

"An earlier study [see 34: 804]… has demonstrated that approach and avoidance gradients of preference could be obtained from children, following positive or negative reinforcement (success or failure) applied to their response to a training task." This experiment is an extension of that study, and attempts to establish a condition under which preference displacement may occur. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Performance evaluation and intrinsic motivation: The effects of evaluative focus, rewards, and achievement orientation.

Most studies of intrinsic motivation under reward and evaluative contingencies have used social comparison criteria to evaluate subjects' performance. In those studies evaluation tended to reduce intrinsic interest. This study contrasted normative evaluation against a more task-focused evaluation of subjects' performance on an interesting word game and examined the role of achievement motivation in moderating reactions to performance evaluation. Focus differences were implemented under conditions of performance-contingent reward, anticipated evaluation, and control conditions in which subjects received performance feedback at task conclusion. We predicted that evaluation would reduce interest relative to reward and feedback control groups under a normative focus but not under a task focus and also that a process of competence valuation (Harackiewicz & Manderlink, 1984) would mediate the effects of reward and achievement on interest, especially in normative conditions. The data conformed to these expectations with one exception: Evaluation under a task focus increased intrinsic interest. These results were interpreted in the context of a general model that considers the separate effects of situational contingencies, personality factors, performance and motivational processes, and evaluative outcomes on intrinsic motivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's personal space as a function of age and sex.

Gathered measures of personal space from 74 children (ages 3, 5, and 7) when they approached boys or girls of their own age. A significant difference was found between the 3-yr-olds (who kept less distance from their age peers) and the 5- or 7-yr-olds. No other differences attributable to age were found. For all Ss, the sex of the interacting child was relevant in that less distance was kept from girls than from boys. Results are discussed in the light of learning and developmental processes. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)