Repression and hypnotic amnesia: A failure to replicate and an alternative formulation.

In an attempt to replicate and extend a study by S. R. Clemes (see record 1965-02178-001), 2 groups of 10 undergraduate hypnotic Ss learned a list of 18 words and were given an amnesia suggestion telling them they would be able to remember only 10 of these words. Half of the list words were critical (i.e., considered to be related to repressed conflictual material) and half were neutral (unrelated to conflictual material) as determined by Ss' responses to a word association test. Experimental Ss received their own critical and neutral words and yoked control Ss received the critical and neutral words of experimental Ss. Neither the experimental nor the yoked control group exhibited selective amnesia in favor of critical words, thus constituting a failure to replicate Clemes's result. However, variables affecting the degree to which words were initially learned (e.g., imagery value, serial position) predicted their resistance to amnesia. These findings are inconsistent with a repression hypothesis but congruent with an inattention hypothesis of suggested amnesia. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Category-order effects in memory span.

When Ss are required to recall lists containing both words and digits, memory span is higher when the digits precede the words than when the words precede the digits. In Exp 1, both forward and backward recall were tested; it was demonstrated that this category-order effect reflects the input position, and not the output position, of the items. Exp 2 revealed that this effect was not eliminated by a filled retention interval. Exp 3 showed that the effect was eliminated when lists were presented at a fast presentation rate. In Exp 4, the effect was eliminated when Ss engaged in articulatory suppression. A 5th experiment extended the findings of Exp 4 to the case in which lists are composed of semantically related or unrelated words. These results suggest that category-order effects reflect mnemonic activity that Ss engage in during list presentation and do not arise from structural characteristics of the memory system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A biased test of the encoding shift hypothesis.

A recognition memory experiment with 72 8-, 11-, and 20-yr-olds investigated the hypothesis that with age, semantic encoding becomes increasingly important relative to acoustic encoding. Target words were paired with words related either semantically or acoustically in order to bias encoding in the direction of features common to both words. In support of the encoding shift hypothesis, recognition accuracy improved with age when encoding was biased semantically relative to accuracy when encoding was biased acoustically. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of testing on the forgetting of related and unrelated associates.

Examined the rate of forgetting of experimentally acquired associative information when the to-be-associated items are either associatively related or related in semantic memory in 288 undergraduates. Separate groups of 24 Ss studied lists of word pairs in which the members of the pairs were either unrelated or strong or weak associates. A single study trial was given. In addition, 1 group received 3 study presentations on the unrelated list. An immediate cued recall test for half of the pairs was followed by a second test on all pairs either 10 min, 48 hrs, or 1 wk later. The associated pairs, both strong and weak, were forgotten less rapidly than the nonassociated pairs, but the effect was largely restricted to previously tested items. The results do not appear to be due to differences in the amount of interference present, but they point to the importance of retrieval operations in the attenuation of forgetting. (French abstract) (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Phonemic analysis and synthesis as word-attack skills.

40 4-yr-olds were randomly assigned either to a group that received phonic blend training or to a group that did not. Half in each group were proficient at segmenting syllables into individual speech sounds. After demonstrating their ability to discriminate among letterlike forms, all Ss were trained to read from left to right, then to associate a different sound with each of the letterlike forms, and finally were given 2 paired-associate lists in which stimuli were pairs of letterlike forms and responses were common English words with a 1:1 letter-sound correspondence. Ss proficient at phonemic analysis performed better on both lists. Phonic blend training improved performance on the 2nd list only for Ss proficient at phonemic analysis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of encoding and strategic knowledge on children's choices among serial recall strategies.

This study examined how encoding and strategy knowledge influence 5- to 9-yr-olds' choices among serial recall procedures. The 7- and 9-yr-olds encoded contiguity relations within lists of numbers more consistently than did the 5-yr-olds, and encoding was related to their strategy choices. Presentation of lists with striking contiguity relations led 5-yr-olds to encode the contiguity relations more consistently and to alter their strategy choices accordingly. The 5-yr-olds' more consistent encoding of the contiguity relations, but not their strategy choices, transferred to another type of list. Thus, encoding of relations within the lists was not sufficient to guarantee that the encoding would influence strategy choices. A model of strategy choice that was developed in the context of arithmetic was used to explain the developmental differences in adaptiveness of strategy choices on a task on which the individual items were unfamiliar. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Working-memory capacity as long-term memory activation: An individual-differences approach.

One explanation of the correlation often observed between working-memory span scores and reading comprehension is that individuals differ in level of activation available for long-term memory units. Two experiments used the fan manipulation to test this idea. In Exp 1, high- and low-working-memory Ss learned a set of unrelated sentences varying in the number of shared concepts (fans) and then performed speeded recognition for those sentences. Low-working-memory Ss showed a larger increase in recognition time as fan increased. When the slope of the fan effect was partialled out of the relationship between working-memory span and verbal abilities, the relationship was reduced to nonsignificance. In Exp 2, Ss learned thematically related sentences that varied in fan. Low-span Ss showed the positive fan effect typically found with thematically unrelated sentences, whereas high-span Ss showed a negative fan effect. The results are discussed in terms of a general capacity theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The influence of class membership, method of presentation, and restricted association strength on free-recall learning.

Composed free-recall lists of subordinate, superordinate, coordinate, contrasting, or unrelated pairs of words and presented them in random or block order for 8 presentation-recall periods. Ss were 310 undergraduates. Category clustering was greater for each related list relative to the unrelated list and for the subordinate and coordinate lists relative to the other related lists. Recall was superior for the subordinate list relative to the superordinate or unrelated list, and no other interlist differences in recall were obtained. All performance measures were superior with block, compared to random, presentation. The normative strength of conceptual relations was not an influential factor within the range studied. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retroactive inhibition for lists learned under interference conditions.

Determined whether a list of pairs acquired under conditions of interference is more susceptible to retroactive inhibition (RI) produced by additional interpolated interference than a list learned under noninterference conditions. The RI produced by groups differing in the type of prior learning administered, i.e., lists forming either an A-B, C-D, or an A-B, A-D relationship with the list being recalled, was compared. Results of modified-modified free recall test strongly support the susceptibility hypothesis. Data suggest (a) some evidence for proactive inhibition, but the demonstration was not reliable; and (b) that Ss who received nonspecific practice prior to their learning of 2 lists corresponding to an A-B, A-D paradigm showed less RI than Ss who had had no practice. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Transfer of a mnemonic keyword strategy at two age levels.

80 12- and 80 18-yr-old students learned a list of cities paired with their products. In experimental conditions, Ss were instructed in mnemonic usage to learn the city–product pairings. Control Ss were simply instructed to learn the pairings. Then all Ss were presented a list of Latin nouns and their translations to learn. Spontaneous transfer of the keyword strategy to the Latin task was observed only among 18-yr-olds. However, the 12-yr-olds could transfer the keyword strategy to the new task situation if they were told to "use a technique similar to the one used in the city–product task." Results are interpreted within a developmental elaboration theory framework. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic retrieval in children and adults.

Studied the processes by which 15 undergraduates and 48 8-, 11-, and 13-yr-olds retrieved semantic information from long-term memory. Ss were timed as they judged whether sentences pairing animal names and properties (e.g., "A lion has a mane") were true. Relationships between animal names and properties were varied in 2 ways: properties were at (a) 1 of 3 levels of "saliency" (rated association strength) and (b) 1 of 3 levels of specificity. Closely comparable results were obtained at each age level. Sentences with highly salient properties were verified more quickly than were those with less salient properties, and statements with low-specificity properties were verified more quickly than sentences with more specific properties. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory integration and memory interference.

S. D. Moesser (see PA, Vol 56:3437; 1977) found that Ss presented with a nonsequential order of interrelating sentences did not show any evidence of having integrated these sentences into composite units. This type of presentation procedure also produces an interference effect that lessens the probability of retrieving information from the presented sentences. However, J. Bransford and J. Franks (see record 1972-24191-001) reported that Ss presented with a nonsequential order of interrelating sentences automatically integrate the partial ideas into holistic units. Bransford and Franks based their conclusions on the facts that (1) Ss were unable to identify the exact exemplars that were presented, and (2) Ss showed a bias in choosing more complex sentences as having been part of the acquisition corpus. Two experiments are reported here, which were conducted with 124 Newfoundland college students who participated in 1 of 2 encoding conditions while performing forced-choice or confidence recognition tasks. Results show that both the failure to identify presented exemplars and the tendency to choose more complex sentences in the test corpus were products of the retrieval interference effect. Findings fail to support the proposal that Ss will automatically integrate related ideas into composite units. (French abstract) (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bizarre imagery, interference, and distinctiveness.

Previous studies have shown that bizarre and common images produce equivalent levels of recall in unmixed-list designs. Using unmixed lists, we tested the view that bizarre images would be less susceptible than common images to common sources of interference. In all experiments, subjects imaged a list of either bizarre or common sentences and then performed some kind of interfering task before recalling the initial list of sentences. Experiment 1 showed that bizarre images were better accessed than common images after imaging an intervening list of common sentences. Also, components of common images tended to be better recalled than those of bizarre images after imaging an intervening list of bizarre sentences. Experiments 2a and 2b showed that interfering tasks consisting of studying lists of common concrete nouns did not differentially affect memory for bizarre and common images. In Experiment 3, labeling and imaging an interfering list of common pictures produced higher recall of bizarre images. Generally, bizarre images appeared to be less susceptible than common images to interference from certain types of common encodings. Importantly, the superior recall of bizarre images was always due to greater image (sentence) access, whereas higher recall of common images was associated with greater recovery of the image (sentence) constituents. Explanation of the precise pattern of results requires consideration of the distinctive properties of bizarre images. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of visual pattern classification in preschool children: Prototypes and distinctive features.

Studied the use of prototypes and distinctive features in visual pattern classification with 12 Ss at each of 3 age levels: 4, 5, and 6 yrs. All Ss attended day-care centers in middle-class neighborhoods of metropolitan Canadian areas. Two tasks were performed: (a) an oddity task requiring selection of the odd pattern in problems containing 2 patterns generated from 1 prototype and 1 from another, and (b) a sequential task requiring designation from memory of each pattern's class membership. There was a marked improvement in oddity task classification accuracy between the 4- and 5-yr age levels. Performance at each age level could be predicted from measures of deviation from prototype and 2 distinctive features unrelated to pattern class membership. In the more difficult sequential task, the preschoolers did not respond to an entire set of features as subsumed in prototype measures, but a single class-defining feature significantly predicted the classifications of the 4- and 5-yr-olds. It is concluded that the ability to use single features develops prior to the ability to use a feature list or prototype and that both distinctive features and prototypes are important for perceptual learning and development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A new look at vigilance and defense.

2 hypotheses were tested: (a) "Threatening tachistocopic stimuli are recognized at thresholds both higher and lower than thresholds for matched control words. The extent of deviation is related to degree of anxiety induced by the threat"; and (b) "When the associated anxiety is removed, then threshold deviations diminish. The degree of reduction is related to the decrease in anxiety." 22 adults of mixed sexes served as Ss. 2 matched lists of words were presented in an anagram-solving exercise. One list was constructed to produce failure. When all words were presented tachistoscopically for a second time, it was found that anxiety aroused by the failure correlated significantly with the absolute difference between recognition thresholds for failure and control words. This relationship persisted even after the artificial nature of the anxiety had been explained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Latent variable modeling of cognitive processes in true and false recognition of words: A developmental perspective.

The present study aimed at testing theoretical predictions of the fuzzy-trace theory about true and false recognition. The effects of semantic relatedness and study opportunity on true and false recognition of words from Deese, Roediger, McDermott lists (J. Deese, 1959; D. R. Read, 1996; H. L. Roediger & K. B. McDermott, 1995) were evaluated in 7- to 12-year-old children (N = 151). Instead of a traditional analysis of variance, the authors used a relatively novel statistical analysis technique, latent class factor analysis, to test the hypotheses pertaining to the effect of semantic relatedness and study opportunity on children's true and false recognition given their low or high verbatim-trace and gist-trace level. The results showed that variation in true recognition of target words from semantically related and unrelated word lists that were either studied once or repeated could be explained well by variation in verbatim-trace and gist-trace level. Variation in false recognition of semantically related distractors also could be explained by variation in gist-trace level, but the recollection-rejection hypothesis was not confirmed. The variable age was positively but weakly related to gist-trace level, but no significant relationship was found between age and verbatim-trace level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A word-frequency cohort effect in young versus elderly adults' memory for words.

72 undergraduates and 72 elderly Ss (mean age 73.6 yrs) were tested for recall of 4 types of word lists that varied in terms of word frequency and datedness. "Popular" words had high frequency in both E. L. Thorndike's (1921) and H. Kucera and N. W. Francis's (1967) norms; "dated" words had high frequency in 1921 but low present-day frequency; "contemporary" words had low frequency in 1921 but high present-day frequency; "rare" words had low frequency in both norms. In both the sorting-recall and the standard multitrial free-recall tasks, the older Ss' pattern of list recall differed from that of the younger Ss. For older Ss, the feature of early high frequency promoted better recall (in the popular and dated lists) than did present-day high frequency (i.e., the contemporary list was recalled as poorly as the rare list). Results suggest a word-frequency cohort effect and indicate that high-frequency words from one's youth are particularly memorable, especially for elderly individuals. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lexical and sentence context effects in word recognition.

Three experiments examined lexical and sentence-level contributions to contextual facilitation effects in word recognition. Subjects named target words preceded by normal or scrambled sentence contexts that contained lexical associates of the target. In Experiment 1, normal sentences showed facilitation for related targets and inhibition for unrelated targets. Experiment 2 eliminated syntactically anomalous targets among unrelated items and showed only facilitation for related targets. In neither experiment was there any effect of relatedness for scrambled stimuli. Experiment 3 included syntactically normal but semantically anomalous sentences to test whether the failure of scrambled sentences to show priming was due to their syntactic incoherence. Normal sentences again showed contextual facilitation, but neither scrambled nor anomalous sentences showed such effects. The results indicate that there are sentence-context effects that do not arise solely from intralexical spreading activation and suggest that context facilitates the identification of a lexical candidate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of cuing on recall from categorized word lists.

Explored the retrieval-deficit hypothesis by comparing free-recall under cued and noncued conditions in 2 groups of 36 5- and 8-yr-olds. On a 16-word list containing either 2, 4, or 8 categories, Ss received 2 trials of noncued recall. The 2nd trial was immediately followed by a test for cued recall. A comparison between cued recall performance and noncued recall performance on Trial 2 indicates that the younger children benefited more than the older children from the cuing procedure. For both age groups, there were effects of cuing on both the number of categories recalled and the number of items per category recalled. Clustering was observed at both age-levels but appeared unrelated to recall performance. Some of the results are discussed in connection with a retrieval deficit hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)