碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管发展现状

碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管探测器具有高增益、高带宽和低噪声因数的显著特点,具有下一代焦平面探测器阵列的多功能、主动/被动探测、双波段和高灵敏度等理想特性,在低光通量探测、超光谱、二维/三维成像方面显示出强大的应用潜力。本文简要介绍了碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管主要器件结构、特点及应用现状。     

HgCdTe艰辛的历程、辉煌的成就:一、伟大的发明

根据半个多世纪碲镉汞材料、碲镉汞红外探测器的发展里程,以碲镉汞材料的发明、关键技术突破带来的碲镉汞材料生长技术的进步、关键技术的突破带来的碲镉汞探测器性能提升、第一代陆军通用组件、第二代高性能红外焦平面器件和第三代高清、多波段红外焦平面器件等重要里程碑为出发点,采用专题系列的形式,回顾碲镉汞材料及碲镉汞红外探测器发展的...     

长波p-on-n碲镉汞红外焦平面器件高温工作性能

碲镉汞材料为窄禁带半导体,随着工作温度的升高,材料本征载流子浓度会增加,探测器截止波长会变短,暗电流增加等,会导致器件性能降低。碲镉汞红外探测器通常在77 K温度附近工作并获得很好的探测性能,但低温工作会增加探测器的制备成本、功耗、体积和重量等。为了解决这些问题,在保证探测器正常工作性能的前提下,提升探测器的工作温度是碲镉汞红外探测器的重要研究方向。p-on-n结构的碲镉汞红外焦平面器件具有低暗电流、长少子寿命等特点,有利于在高工作温度条件下获得较好的器件性能。在不同工作温度下对p-on-n长波焦平面探测器的性能进行测试分析,在110 K时p-on-n长波碲镉汞红外焦平面探测器噪声等效温差（Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference , NETD）为25.3 mK,有效像元率为99.48%,在高温条件下具备较优的工作性能。     

HgCdTe雪崩光电二极管的研究进展

碲镉汞红外雪崩光电二极管(APD)阵列作为最近十多年来发展起来的新型探测器,以其高增益、高灵敏度和高速探测的优点,成为未来微弱信号探测、二维/三维成像、主/被动探测应用的重要器件。本文重点阐述了雪崩光电二极管的基本原理、以及HgCdTe雪崩光电二极管材料和器件的研究,结合应用方向对其研究进展进行了综述性介绍。     

利用刻蚀工艺制备碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管

碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管是第三代红外焦平面探测器的主要发展方向之一.提出一种利用离子束刻蚀工艺制备碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管器件的方法,并研究了截止波长、耗尽区厚度与器件增益的关系.利用此方法制备截止波长4. 8μm的中波器件在17 V反向偏置下增益可达1 000.对器件进行了噪声频谱测试,计算了其过剩噪声因子.     

可见近红外波段碲镉汞材料光学常数测定与宽谱增透设计

将碲镉汞(Hg_(1-x)Cd_xTe)红外焦平面器件衬底去除后,其响应波段可拓展到可见光波段,在高光谱成像应用中可显著减小系统的尺寸和重量,对光电探测系统的小型化和微型化具有重要实用价值.而明确碲镉汞材料在可见近红外波段的光学常数,对碲镉汞器件在这一响应波段的性能研究具有重要意义.分别测量了不同组分碲镉汞材料的椭圆偏振光谱,拟合得到了其在400~1 600 nm波段范围内的光学常数值,并利用反射光谱对获得的光学常数进行了验证.采用这些碲镉汞外延材料光学常数测量值,并选用Zn S和YF3分别作为高低折射率的增透膜材料,针对不同响应波段的背入射可见近红外碲镉汞焦平面器件,设计了不同的宽谱增透膜系,响应波段范围内的平均透过率高于90%.     

碲镉汞红外焦平面器件技术进展

近十年碲镉汞第二代红外焦平面探测器应用呈现爆发式增长,也是第三代焦平面技术快速发展的十年。文中对近十年来碲镉汞红外焦平面探测器技术的发展进行了简单的回顾,并结合碲镉汞红外焦平面探测器的应用,对在碲镉汞红外焦平面探测器技术方面的研究工作和工程应用进行了总结,最后,对未来碲镉汞红外焦平面探测器技术的发展进行了展望。     

碲镉汞高工作温度红外探测器

基于当前红外探测器技术的发展方向,从高工作温度红外探测器应用需求的角度分析了碲镉汞高工作温度红外探测器在组件重量、外形尺寸、功耗、环境适应性及可靠性方面的优势。总结了欧美等发达国家在碲镉汞高工作温度红外探测器研究方面的技术路线及研究现状。从器件暗电流和噪声机制的角度分析了碲镉汞光电器件在不同工作温度下的暗电流和噪声变化情况及其对器件性能的影响;总结了包括基于工艺优化的Hg空位p型n-on-p结构碲镉汞器件、基于In掺杂p-on-n结构和Au掺杂n-on-p结构的非本征掺杂碲镉汞高工作温度器件、基于nBn势垒阻挡结构的碲镉汞高工作温度器件及基于吸收层热激发载流子俄歇抑制的非平衡模式碲镉汞高工作温度器件在内的不同技术路线碲镉汞高工作温度器件的基本原理,对比分析了不同技术路线碲镉汞高工作温度器件的性能及探测器制备的技术难点。在综合分析不同技术路线高温器件性能与技术实现难度的基础上展望了碲镉汞高工作温度器件技术未来的发展方向,认为基于低浓度掺杂吸收层的全耗尽结构器件具备更好的发展潜力。     

HgCdTe红外探测器性能分析

根据碲镉汞材料的性能、碲镉汞红外探测器物理机理和基本器件模型,对截止波长为3 m、5 m、10.5 m的碲镉汞探测器,在不同工作温度下的探测率性能进行了理论计算。计算结果表明:碲镉汞探测器在短波、中波和长波三个主要红外波段均能满足第三代红外焦平面器件对灵敏度和工作温度的要求。     

32×32长波红外焦平面器件研制和室温目标红外热图像

文章介绍了32×32元长波碲镉汞混成焦平面器件研制及室温目标红外热成像演示。该器件采用MBE碲镉汞薄膜材料、全平面离子注入成结工艺、Si－CMOS读出电路、倒焊互联混成、背照工作模式。所研制的32×32元碲镉汞长波焦平面器件获得了突破性进展，最新结果为Dλ*＞1×1010cmHz1／2W－1，响应率不均匀性为12．4％，有效像元＞98％，NETD约为0．1K（FOV＝60°），响应波长8～10μm。该器件实现了室温目标红外热成像。该项工作处于国内领先水平。在研制过程中解决了一系列关键问题，为研制更大规模的红外焦平面器件奠定了坚实的技术基础。     

碲镉汞光子计数型线性雪崩探测器(特邀)

单光子计数技术在弱信号探测和时间测距中具有重大的应用前景。自从20世纪70年代可见光的光子计数系统研发以来,国际上该领域内的研发小组在不断地发展完善光子计数技术,充分放大光子信号,以降低电子设备的读出噪声。电子倍增电荷耦合器件(Electron Multiplying Charge Coupled Devices, EMCCDs)具有更高的量子效率,可替代传统的可见光光子计数系统,但较大的雪崩噪声阻碍了倍增下入射光子数的准确获取。碲镉汞线性雪崩器件(HgCdTe APD)的过剩噪声因子接近1,几乎无过剩噪声;相对于盖革模式的雪崩器件,没有死时间和后脉冲,不需要淬灭电路,具有超高动态范围,光谱响应范围宽且可调,探测效率和误计数率可独立优化,开辟了红外波段光子计数成像的新应用领域,在天文探测、激光雷达、自由空间通信等应用中具有重要价值。美国雷神(Raytheon)公司和DRS技术公司、法国CEA/LETI实验室和Lynred公司、英国Leonardo公司先后实现了碲镉汞线性雪崩探测器的单光子计数。文中总结了欧美国家在碲镉汞光子计数型线性雪崩探测器研究方面的技术路线和研究现状,分析了吸收倍增...     

The HgCdTe electron avalanche photodiode

Electron injection avalanche photodiodes in short-wave infrared (SWIR) to long-wave infrared (LWIR) HgCdTe show gain and excess noise properties indicative of a single ionizing carrier gain process. The result is an electron avalanche photodiode (EAPD) with “ideal” APD characteristics including near noiseless gain. This paper reports results obtained on long-, mid-, and short-wave cutoff infrared Hg_1−xCd_xTe EAPDs (10 μm, 5 μm, and 2.2 μm) that use a cylindrical “p-around-n” front side illuminated n+/n-/p geometry that favors electron injection into the gain region. These devices are characterized by a uniform, exponential, gain voltage characteristic that is consistent with a hole-to-electron ionization coefficient ratio, k=α_h/α_e, of zero. Gains of greater than 1,000 have been measured in MWIR EAPDS without any sign of avalanche breakdown. Excess noise measurements on midwave infrared (MWIR) and SWIR EAPDs show a gain independent excess noise factor at high gains that has a limiting value less than 2. At 77 K, 4.3-μm cutoff devices show excess noise factors of close to unity out to gains of 1,000. A noise equivalent input of 7.5 photons at a 10-ns pulsed signal gain of 964 measured on an MWIR APD at 77 K provides an indication of the capability of this new device. The excess noise factor at room temperature on SWIR EAPDs, while still consistent with the k=0 operation, approaches a gain independent limiting value of just under 2 because of electron-phonon interactions expected at room temperature. The k=0 operation is explained by the band structure of the HgCdTe. Monte Carlo modeling based on the band structure and scattering models for HgCdTe predict the measured gain and excess noise behavior.     

Gated IR Imaging with 128 × 128 HgCdTe Electron Avalanche Photodiode FPA

The next generation of infrared (IR) sensor systems will include active imaging capabilities. One example of such a system is a gated active/passive system. The gated active/passive system promises target detection and identification at longer ranges compared to conventional passive-only imaging systems. A detector that is capable of both active and passive modes of operation opens up the possibility of a self-aligned system that uses a single focal plane. The mid-wave infrared (MWIR) HgCdTe electron injection avalanche photodiode (e-APD) provides state-of-the-art 3 μm to 5 μm performance for the passive mode and high, low-noise, gain in the active mode, and high quantum efficiency at 1.5 μm. Gains of greater than 1000 have been measured in MWIR e-APDs with a gain-independent excess noise factor of 1.3. This paper reports the application of the mid-wave HgCdTe e-APD for near-IR gated-active/passive imaging. Specifically a 128 × 128 focal-plane array (FPA) composed of 40-μm-pitch MWIR cutoff APD detectors and custom readout integrated circuit was designed, fabricated, and tested. Median gains as high as 946 at 11 V bias with noise equivalent photon inputs as low as 0.4 photon were measured at 80 K and 1 μs gate times. This subphoton sensitivity is consistent with the high gains, low excess noise factor, and low effective gain normalized dark-current densities, near or below 1 nA/cm², that were achieved in these FPAs. A gated imaging demonstration system was designed and built using commercially available parts. High resolution and precision gating was demonstrated in this system by imagery taken at ranges out to 9 km.     

碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管近年研究及应用进展

碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管(HgCdTe APD)因其具有高增益、高带宽、高量子效率、低噪声的优良性能,在主动/被动成像、激光雷达、波前传感和光子计数等低光子探测领域有着广阔的应用前景,国外研究机构在该领域采用不同的技术路线进行了深入研究.本文阐述了APD原理及结构,重点对近年来国外相关研究进展及应用情况进行了介绍,并对国内...     

碲镉汞红外探测器的前沿技术综述

红外光电探测器件在军事、民用和科学研究方面具有非常重要的应用。而碲镉汞(HgCdTe)由于自身的诸多优点在红外光电探测器的发展中起到了至关重要的作用,至今仍然是重要的战略战术应用中首选的材料体系。首先分析了针对新一代红外探测器所提出的SWaP3(Size,Weight,and Power,Performance and Price)概念,然后简略介绍了第三代红外焦平面研究背景下HgCdTe薄膜的衬底水平与材料生长情况,最后总结了大规模阵列器件、甚长波红外器件、高工作温度(High Operating Temperature,HOT)器件、超光谱探测器件、双色器件以及雪崩光电器件等前沿技术方面的研究进展。     

InGaAs/InP盖革模式雪崩焦平面阵列的研制

设计制作了一种由InGaAs/InP雪崩光电二极管阵列与时间计数型CMOS读出电路组成的8×8阵列规格盖革模式雪崩焦平面阵列(GM APD FPA).雪崩光电二极管采用SAGCM结构,在盖革模式下工作具有单光子探测灵敏度;时间计数型CMOS读出电路在每个单元获取光子飞行时间,实现纳秒级的时间分辨率,并完成雪崩淬灭功能.测试结果表明,倒装混合集成的GM APD FPA器件暗计数率(DCR)均值为32.5 kHz,单光子探测效率(PDE)均值为19.5％,单元时间抖动为465 ps,实现了光脉冲时间信息的探测,验证了盖革模式雪崩焦平面阵列技术及其在三维成像中应用的可行性.     

77 K下碲镉汞APD探测器的高精度时间数字转换电路

碲镉汞雪崩光电二极管(HgCdTe APD)是目前红外焦平面技术前沿研究之一,低温下高精度时间标记读出电路是APD焦平面的基础,直接影响到APD红外焦平面性能.时间数字转换电路(TDC)是实现高精度时间标记的方法之一.基于对低温下金属-氧化物半导体场效应晶体管(Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Fie...     

Effect of dead space on the excess noise factor and time responseof avalanche photodiodes

The effect of dead space on the statistics of the gain process in continuous-multiplication avalanche photodiodes (APDs) is determined using the theory of age-dependent branching processes. The dead space is the minimum distance that a newly generated carrier must travel in order to acquire sufficient energy to cause an impact ionization. Analytical expressions are derived for the mean gain, the excess noise factor, and the mean and standard deviation of the impulse response function, for the dead-space-modified avalanche photodiode (DAPD), under conditions of single carrier multiplication. The results differ considerably from the well-known formulas derived by R.J. McIntyre and S.D. Personick in the absence of dead space. Relatively simple asymptotic expressions for the mean gain and excess noise factor are obtained for devices with long multiplication regions. In terms of the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of an optical receiver in the presence of circuit noise, it is established that there is a salutory effect of using a properly designed DAPD in place of a conventional APD. The relative merits of using DAPD versus a multilayer (superlattice) avalanche photodiode (SAPD) are examined in the context of receiver SNR; the best choice turns out to depend on which device parameters are used for the comparison     

Fabrication of high-performance large-format MWIR focal plane arrays from MBE-grown HgCdTe on 4″ silicon substrates

We have developed the capability to grow HgCdTe mid-wave infrared radiation double-layer heterojunctions (MWIR DLHJs) on 4″ Si wafers by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and fabricate devices from these wafers that are comparable to those produced by mature technologies. Test data show that the detectors, which range in cutoff wavelength over 4–7 μm, are comparable to the trendline performance of liquid phase epitaxy (LPE)-grown material. The spectral characteristics are similar, with a slight decrease in quantum efficiency attributable to the Si substrate. With respect to R₀A, the HgCdTe/Si devices are closer to the theoretical radiative-limit than LPE-grown detectors. Known defect densities in the material have been correlated to device performance through a simple model. Slight 1/f noise increases were measured in comparison to the LPE material, but the observed levels are not sufficient to significantly degrade focal plane array (FPA) performance. In addition to discrete detectors, two FPA formats were fabricated. 128×128 FPAs show MWIR sensitivity comparable to mature InSb technology, with pixel operability values in excess of 99%. A 640×480 FPA further demonstrates the high-sensitivity and high-operability capabilities of this material.