Distributions of PM2.5 source strengths for cooking from the Research Triangle Park particulate matter panel study

Emission rates, decay rates, and cooking durations are reported from continuous PM2.5 (particulate matter less than 2.5 microm) concentrations measured using personal DataRam nephelometers (1-min time resolution) from the Research Triangle Park (RTP) PM panel study. The study (n = 37 participants) included monitoring for 7 consecutive days in each of four consecutive seasons (summer 2000 through spring 2001). Cooking episodes (n = 411) were selected using time-activity diaries and criteria for cooking event duration, peak concentration level, and decay curve quality. Averaged across all cooking events, mean source strengths were 36 mg/min (median = 12 mg/min), mean decay rates were 0.27 h(-1) (0.17 h(-1)), and mean cooking durations were 11 min (7 min). Cooking events were further separated into one of seven categories representing cooking method: burned food (oven cooking, toaster, or stovetop cooking), grilling, microwave, toaster oven, frying, oven cooking, and stovetop cooking. The highest mean source strengths were identified from burned food (mean = 470 mg/min), grilling (173 mg/min), and frying (60 mg/ min); differences between both burned food and grilling compared with all remaining cooking methods were statistically significant. Source strengths, decay rates, and cooking durations were also compared by season and typical meal times (8:00 a.m., 12:00 p.m., and 6:00 p.m.); differences were generally not statistically significant for these cases. Mean source strengths using electric appliances were typically a factor of 2 greater than those using gas appliances for identical cooking methods (frying, oven cooking, or stovetop cooking), although in all cases the difference was not statistically significant. Distributions of source strengths and decay rates for cooking events were also compared among study subjects to assess both within- and between-subject variability. Each subject's distribution of source strengths during the study tended to be either lower than the overall study average (and with lower variability) or higher than the overall study average (and with higher variability). No relationships could be found between source strength and either subject characteristics (age, gender, employment status) or home characteristic (daily air exchange rate). The large number of cooking events and the broad range of cooking activities included in this analysis makes the reported distributions of PM2.5 source strengths useful for probabilistic exposure modeling even though the study population was limited.     

Characteristics of nucleation and growth events of ultrafine particles measured in Rochester, NY

Number concentrations and size distributions of particles in the size range of 0.010-0.500 microm were measured in Rochester, NY, from December 2001 to December 2002. The relationships between the number concentrations, gaseous pollutants, and meteorological parameters were examined during particle nucleation events. More than 70% of measured total number concentration was associated with ultrafine particles (UFP, 0.011-0.050 microm). Morning nucleation events typically peaking UFP number concentrations at around 08:00 were apparent in winter months with CO increases. These particles appear to be formed following direct emissions from motorvehicles during morning rush hour. There were also often observed increases in this smaller-sized range particles in the late afternoon during the afternoon rush hour, particularly in winter when the mixing heights remain lowerthan in summer. Strong afternoon nucleation events (> 30,000 cm(-3)) peaking at around 13: 00 were more likely to occur in spiring and summer months. During the prominent nucleation events, peaks of SO2 were strongly associated with the number concentrations of UFP, whereas there were no significant correlations between these events and PM2.5 and CO. Increased SO2 concentrations were observed when the wind direction was northwesterly where three SO2 sources were located. It is hypothesized that UFP formed during the events are sulfuric acid and water from the oxidation of SO2. There were also a more limited number of nucleation events followed by particle growth up to approximately 0.1 microm over periods of up to 18 h. The nucleation and growth events tended to be common in spring months especially in April.     

Size-resolved source apportionment of airborne particle mass in a roadside environment

Airborne particulate hopanes, steranes, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) were measured in six size fractions < 1.8 microm particle diameter at one site upwind and two sites downwind of the Interstate 5 freeway in San Diego, CA. The smallest size fraction collected was exclusively in the ultrafine size range (D(p) < 0.1 microm; PM0.1). Size distributions of hopanes, steranes, and PAHs peaked between 0.10-0.18 microm particle aerodynamic diameter with a tail extending into the PM0.1 size range. This pattern is similar to previous dynamometer studies of hopane, sterane, and PAH size distributions emitted from gasoline- and diesel-powered vehicles. Size-resolved source profiles were combined to form an "on-road" profile for motor oil, diesel, and gasoline contributions to EC and OC. The resulting equations were used to predict source contributions to the size distributions of EC and OC in the roadside environment. The method successfully accounted for the majority of the carbonaceous material in particles with diameter < 0.18 microm, with significant residual material in larger size fractions. The peak in both the measured and predicted EC size distribution occurred between 0.1-0.18 microm particle aerodynamic diameter. The predicted OC size distribution peaked between 0.1-0.18 microm particle diameter, butthe measured OC size distribution peaked between 0.56-1.0 microm particle diameter, possibly because of secondary organic aerosol formation. Predicted OC concentrations in particles with diameter < 0.18 microm were greater than measured values 18 m downwind of the roadway but showed good agreement 37 m downwind. The largest source contributions to the PM0.1 and PM0.18 size fractions were different. PM0.18 was dominated by diesel fuel and motor oil combustion products while PM0.1 was dominated by diesel fuel and gasoline fuel combustion products. Total source contributions to ultrafine (PM0.1) EC concentrations 37 m downwind of the roadway were 44 +/- 6% diesel fuel, 21 +/- 1% gasoline, 5 +/- 6% motor oil, and 30% unknown. Total source contributions to ultrafine (PM0.1) OC concentrations 37 m downwind of the roadway were 46 +/- 5% diesel fuel, 44 +/- 5% gasoline, 20 +/- 15% motor oil with a slight overprediction (11%). Diesel fuel appears to make the single largest contribution to ultrafine (PM0.1) particle mass given the fleet distribution during the current experiment.     

EFFECT OF FRYING AND OTHER COOKING CONDITIONS ON NITROSOPYRROLIDINE FORMATION IN BACON

Nitrosopyrrolidine (NO-Pyr) formation in bacon is primarily dependent on frying temperature and not time. Cooking methods affect the amount of NO-Pyr formed: pan frying produces the highest level of NO-Pyr with variable concentrations formed on baking, broiling and cooking in a "baconer." Microwave oven treatment produced the lowest amount of NO-Pyr. A model system study of the decarboxylation of nitrosoproline shows this precursor, which may be present in bacon, is maximally converted to NO-Pyr at 185°C near the recommended temperature for frying.     

Real-world emission factors of fine and ultrafine aerosol particles for different traffic situations in Switzerland

Extended field measurements of particle number (size distribution of particle diameters, D, in the range between 18 nm and 10 microm), surface area concentrations, and PM1 and PM10 mass concentrations were performed in Switzerland to determine traffic emissions using a comprehensive set of instruments. Measurements took place at roads with representative traffic regimes: at the kerbside of a motorway (120 km h(-1)), a highway (80-100 km h(-1)), and in an urban area with stop-and-go traffic (0-50 km h(-1)) regulated by light signals. Mean diurnal variations showed that the highest pollutant concentrations were during the morning rush hours, especially of the number density in the nanoparticle size range (D <50 nm). From the differences between up- and downwind concentrations (or differences between kerbside and background concentrations for the urban site), "real-life" emission factors were derived using NOx concentrations to calculate dilution factors. Particle number and volume emission factors of different size ranges (18-50 nm, 18-100 nm, and 18-300 nm) were derived for the total vehicle fleet and separated into a light-duty (LDV) and a heavy-duty vehicle (HDV) contribution. The total particle number emissions per vehicle were found to be about 11.7-13.5 x 10(14) particles km(-1) for constant speed (80-120 km h(-1) and 3.9 x 10(14) particles km(-1) for urban driving conditions. LDVs showed higher emission factors at constant high speed than under urban disturbed traffic flow. In contrast, HDVs emitted more air pollutants during deceleration and acceleration processes in stop-and-go traffic than with constant speed of about 80 km h(-1). On average, one HDV emits a 10-30 times higher amount of particulate air pollutants (in terms of both number and volume) than one LDV.     

Volatile properties of particles emitted by compressed natural gas and diesel buses during steady-state and transient driving modes

Volatile properties of particle emissions from four compressed natural gas (CNG) and four diesel buses were investigated under steady-state and transient driving modes on a chassis dynamometer. The exhaust was diluted utilizing a full-flow continuous volume sampling system and passed through a thermodenuder at controlled temperature. Particle number concentration and size distribution were measured with a condensation particle counter and a scanning mobility particle sizer, respectively. We show that while almost all the particles emitted by the CNG buses were in the nanoparticle size range, at least 85% and 98% were removed at 100 and 250 °C, respectively. Closer analysis of the volatility of particles emitted during transient cycles showed that volatilization began at around 40 °C, with the majority occurring by 80 °C. Particles produced during hard acceleration from rest exhibited lower volatility than those produced during other times of the cycle. On the basis of our results and the observation of ash deposits on the walls of the tailpipes, we suggest that these nonvolatile particles were composed mostly of ash from lubricating oil. Heating the diesel bus emissions to 100 °C removed ultrafine particle numbers by 69-82% when a nucleation mode was present and just 18% when it was not.     

Evaluation of protein aggregation in cooked meat

The effect of meat cooking on protein aggregation was measured in pig M.Longissimus dorsi. Muscles were aged 4 days in air and then cooked at 100 °C for 10 or 30 min. Meat was ground in a KCl solution and the whole extract was delipidated with a mixture of butanol and di-isopropyl ether in a 40:60 v/v ratio. Protein aggregation induced by cooking was evaluated with a laser granulometer, which enabled reliable and reproducible characterisation of particle size distributions, and particle shape distributions using automated imaging techniques. Cooking significantly decreased the level of big particles, while the number of small particles remained stable. Cooking also affected the form and size of the particles. In order to better understand the mechanisms implicated in the aggregation process the level of protein oxidation and the protein surface hydrophobicity were evaluated in parallel with the granulometry measurements. Significant correlations were observed between the granulometry parameters and some of the protein oxidation indices. The protein surface hydrophobicity was also correlated with the granulometry parameters demonstrating the impact of thermal denaturation on the aggregation process.     

Effect of different cooking methods on lipid oxidation and formation of volatile compounds in foal meat

The influence of four different cooking methods (roasting, grilling, microwaving and frying) on cooking loss, lipid oxidation and volatile profile of foal meat was studied. Cooking loss were significantly (P < 0.001) affected by thermal treatment, being higher (32.5%) after microwaving and lower after grilling (22.5%) and frying (23.8%). As expected, all the cooking methods increased TBARs content, since high temperature during cooking causes increased oxidation in foal steaks, this increase was significantly (P < 0.001) higher when foal steaks were microwaved or roasted.     

Thermal Inactivation of Salmonella Senftenberg and Listeria innocua in Beef/Turkey Blended Patties Cooked via Fryer and/or Air Convection Oven

ABSTRACT: Beef/turkey blended patties, containing 10⁷ to 10⁸ cfu/g of Salmonella Senftenberg or Listeria innocua , were battered and breaded. The effect of frying (177 °C) and air convection cooking (288 °C) on thermal inactivation of S. Senftenberg and L. innocua was evaluated. A model was obtained to correlate product internal temperature with frying and oven cooking time. Cooking method significantly affected thermal history and subsequently the thermal inactivation of S. Senftenberg and L. innocua. The effect of frying time interacted with oven cooking time. Increasing frying time reduced the oven cooking time. Mathematical models were developed to correlate the survival rate of S. Senftenberg or L. innocua with frying and oven cooking time.     

Direct identification of trace metals in fine and ultrafine particles in the Detroit urban atmosphere

Exposure to airborne particulates containing low concentrations of heavy metals, such as Pb, As, and Se, may have serious health effects. However, little is known about the speciation and particle size of these airborne metals. Fine- and ultrafine particles with heavy metals in aerosol samples from the Detroit urban area, Michigan, were examined in detail to investigate metal concentrations and speciation. The characterization of individual particles was completed using high-angle annular dark-field scanning transmission electron microscopy (HAADF-STEM) combined with conventional high-resolution TEM techniques. The trace elements, Pb, As, La, Ce, Sr, Zn, Cr, Se, Sn, Y, Zr, Au, and Ag, were detected, and the elemental distributions were mapped in situ atthe nanoscale. The crystal structures of the particles containing Pb, Sr, Zn, and Au were determined from their electron diffraction patterns. Based on the characterization of the representative trace element particles, the potential health effects are discussed. Most of the trace element particles detected in this study were within a range of 0.01-1.0 microm in size, which has the longest atmospheric residence time (approximately 100 days). Increased chemical reactivity owing to the size of nanoparticles may be expected for most of the trace metal particles observed.     

Size distribution of trace organic species emitted from light-duty gasoline vehicles

Size distributions for particulate hopanes+steranes and nonvolatile polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emitted from five classes of light-duty gasoline-powered vehicles were measured using the federal test procedure (FTP), unified cycle (UC), and correction cycle (CC) driving cycles. 17alpha(H)-21beta(H)-29-norhopane, 17alpha(H)-21beta(H)-hopane, alpha beta beta-20R-stigmastane, and alpha beta beta-20S-stigmastane were highly correlated and behaved consistently across sampling methods. Coronene and benzo[ghi]perylene were the most ubiquitous heavy PAHs detected in the vehicle exhaust. The emission rates of hopanes, steranes, and PAHs contained in particles with aerodynamic diameters of less than 1.8 ,m varied by 2 orders of magnitude between the lowest- and highest-emitting vehicle classes. Hopane+sterane size distributions emitted from vehicles without an operating catalyst (including "cold-start" emissions from catalyst-equipped vehicles) were bimodal with one mode between 0.10 and 0.18 microm and the second mode >0.32 microm particle diameter. Hopane+sterane emissions released from vehicles with a catalyst at operating temperature had a single mode between 0.1 and 0.18 microm diameter. Hopane+sterane emissions from visibly smoking vehicles had a single mode between 0.18 and 0.32 microm diameter. Heavy PAH size distributions for all vehicle classes consistently had a single mode between 0.10 and 0.18 microm particle diameter (0.1-0.32 microm diameter for smoking vehicles). The geometric standard deviations for PAH size distributions were generally smaller than the corresponding hopane+sterane distributions. These trends suggest that hopanes+steranes and heavy PAHs act as tracers for separate processes of particulate organic carbon formation. PAH and hopane+sterane emissions shifted to smaller sizes during the more aggressive UC and CC driving cycles relative to the FTP. The fraction of PAH and hopane+sterane emissions in the ultrafine (Dp < 0.1 microm) range more than doubled during "warm-start" UC and CC cycles vs the FTP cycle. The enhancement of ultrafine PAHs during "cold-start" UC driving cycles was less pronounced.     

Particle Size of Unsweetened Azuki Paste as Related to Cultivar and Cooking Time

Characteristics of beans and effects of cooking time on yield, composition and particle size of unsweetened paste were evaluated in two types of azuki. Cultivar Erimo was smaller in seed size, lower in starch but higher in protein content. Consequently, this cultivar absorbed water faster and to a greater extent during soaking and cooking, and required shorter cooking time than large seeded WSU 262. Over 40% of unsweetened paste particles were smaller than 106 μm for cv Erimo and less than 25% for WSU 262. As cooking time increased, paste yield ranged from 68.6% to 71.9% for cv Erimo and from 57.3% to 74.2% for WSU 262. Sedimentation volume of unsweetened azuki paste correlated with particles smaller than 106 μm (r = 0.918) and can be a useful test to estimate mean particle size of unsweetened azuki paste.     

4种烹饪方式对草鱼肉中孔雀石绿、结晶紫及其代谢物消减的影响

目的探讨煮、蒸、炸和微波等4种烹饪方式对草鱼肉中孔雀石绿、结晶紫及其代谢物消减的影响。方法在空白草鱼肉中添加孔雀石绿、隐色孔雀石绿、结晶紫和隐色结晶紫后,分别用4种方式烹饪,采用高效液相色谱串联质谱测定药物的含量。结果结果表明:经过炸、微波、煮和蒸等烹饪方法处理后,鱼肉中的药物浓度分别降低了79.8%～93.7%、69.4%～91.2%、72.0%～86.2%和69.6%～77.8%。相同的烹饪方式,原药的消减速度均高于代谢物,药物的消减速率顺序为:炸微波煮蒸。结论高温加热能促进孔雀石绿、结晶紫及其代谢产物的消减。     

Size distribution of fat globules in goat milk

Milk from French-Alpine goats and Holstein cows was obtained from a bulk tank immediately prior to analyses. Fat globule size was determined by laser particle size analysis. Individual globules of fat in goat milk ranged from 0.73 to 8.58 microm in diameter. The average diameter of particles based on volume to surface area ratio (dvs) was 2.76 microm and was less than the mean (dvs) of 3.51 microm for bovine milk, in which fat globules ranged from 0.92 to 15.75 microm in diameter. The specific surface area of particles in caprine milk was 21,778 cm2/ml, whereas the specific surface area of particles in bovine milk was 17,117 cm2/ml. Ninety percent of the total particles found in goat milk were less than 5.21 microm in diameter, whereas 90% of the total particles in bovine milk were less than 6.42 microm based on the volume frequency distribution. Dissociation of casein micelles by urea in goat whole and skim milk caused larger dvs values due to the effect of fat particles and reduced the specific surface area in both milks because the total number of detectable particles in both whole and skim milk was reduced.     

Size-fractionated measurements of ambient ultrafine particle chemical composition in Los Angeles using the NanoMOUDI

Ambient ultrafine particles have gained attention with recent evidence showing them to be more toxic than larger ambient particles. Few studies have investigated the distribution of chemical constituents within the ultrafine range. The current study explores the size-fractionated ultrafine (10-180 nm) chemical composition at urban source sites (USC and Long Beach) and inland receptor sites (Riverside and Upland) in the Los Angeles basin over three different seasons. Size-fractionated ultrafine particles were collected by a NanoMOUDI over a period of 2 weeks at each site. Measurements of ultrafine mass concentrations varied from 0.86 to 3.5 microg/m3 with the highest concentrations observed in the fall. The chemical composition of ultrafine particles ranged from 32 to 69% for organic carbon (OC), 1-34% for elemental carbon (EC), 0-24% for sulfate, and 0-4% for nitrate. A distinct OC mode was observed between 18 and 56 nm in the summer, possibly indicating photochemical secondary organic aerosol formation. The EC levels are higher in winter at the source sites due to lower inversion heights and are higher in summer at the receptor sites due to increased long-range transport from upwind source areas. Nitrate and sulfate were measurable only in the larger particle size ranges of ultrafine PM. Collocated continuous measurements of particle size distributions and gaseous pollutants helped to differentiate ultrafine particle sources at each site.     

Comparison of daytime and nighttime concentration profiles and size distributions of ultrafine particles near a major highway

Previously we have conducted systematic measurements of the concentration and size distribution of ultrafine particles in the vicinity of major highways during daytime in Los Angeles. The present study compares these with similar measurements made at night. Particle number concentration was measured by a condensation particle counter (CPC) and size distributions in the size range from 7 to 300 nm were measured by a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS). Measurements were taken at 30, 60, 90, 150, and 300 m upwind and downwind from the center of the 1-405 freeway. Average traffic flow at night was about 25% of that observed during the day. Particle number concentration measured at 30 m downwind from the freeway was 80% of previous daytime measurements. This discrepancy between changes in traffic counts and particle number concentrations is apparently due to the decreased temperature, increased relative humidity, and lower wind speed at night. Particle size distributions do not change as dramatically as they did during the daytime. Particle number concentration decays exponentially downwind from the freeway similarly to what was observed during the day, but at a slower rate. No particle number concentration gradient has been observed for the upwind side of the freeway. No PM2.5 and very weak PM10 concentration gradients were observed downwind of thefreeway at night. Ultrafine particle number concentration measured at 300 m downwind from the freeway was still distinguishably higher than upwind background concentration at night. These data may be used to help estimate exposure to ultrafine particles in the vicinity of major highways for epidemiology studies.     

Lipid characteristics in cooked, chill-reheated fillets of Indo-Pacific king mackerel (Scomberomorous guttatus)

Slices of Scomberomorous guttatus cooked by four different methods (microwave cooking, grilling, steaming and shallow fat frying) were kept chilled at 5 °C for 2 days, reheated by microwave and then evaluated for the changes in the lipid characteristics. The total lipid content for raw sample was 6.0 g/100 g which consist of 49.4 g/100 g saturated (SFA), 6.9 g/100 g monounsaturated (MUFA) and 43.8 g/100 g polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Upon cooking, the total lipids changed to about 7 (microwave), 11 (grilling), 5 (steaming) and 10 g/100 g (shallow fat frying). These changes are significant, with the exception of steam cooking. Cooking did not significantly affect the percentage of NPL, PL, SFA, MUFA and PUFA in the samples. Frying resulted in the change of the SFA/PUFA ratio more than other cooking methods. A significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the content of EPA was only found in the fried samples. A significant (P < 0.05) decrease in the content of DHA in all cooked samples were also obtained. The n-6/n-3 ratio did not change significantly in all cooked and reheated samples, except for shallow fat fried. Reheating did not significantly affect the NPL and PL contents of the fillets, except for microwave cooked samples. Cooking increases the FFA, PV and TBA of samples; reheating enhances the increase.     

Using sulfur as a tracer of outdoor fine particulate matter

Six homes in the metropolitan Boston area were sampled between 6 and 12 consecutive days for indoor and outdoor particle volume and mass concentrations, particle elemental concentrations, and air exchange rates (AERs). Indoor/outdoor (I/O) ratios of nighttime (i.e., particle nonindoor source periods) sulfur, PM2.5 and the specific particle size intervals were used to provide estimates of the effective penetration efficiency. Mixed models and graphical displays were used to assess the ability of the I/O ratios for sulfur to estimate corresponding I/O ratios for PM2.5 and the various particle sizes. Results from this analysis showed that particulate sulfur compounds were primarily of outdoor origin and behaved in a manner that was representative of total PM2.5 in Boston, MA. These findings support the conclusion that sulfur can be used as a suitable tracer of outdoor PM2.5 for the homes sampled in this study. Sulfur was more representative of particles of similar size (0.06-0.5 microm), providing evidence that the size composition of total PM2.5 is an important characteristic affecting the robustness of sulfur-based estimation methods.     

Relative value of surrogate indicators for detecting pathogens in lakes and reservoirs

This study investigated the relative behavior of pathogens, fecal indicator organisms, and particles of varying size during transport through a reservoir following a storm event inflow in Myponga Reservoir, South Australia. During the inflow, samples were collected from the river and at various locations within the reservoir to determine the fate and transport of microroganisms as they progressed through the water body. Microbiological analysis included the indicator organisms Escherichia coli, enterococci, Clostridium perfringens, aerobic spores, and somatic coliphages, the protozoan pathogens Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp., and the potential physical surrogates of pathogen contamination including particle size and turbidity. Of the microbial indicator groups, C. perfringens spores were the most highly correlated with Cryptosporidium spp. concentrations (Spearman Rho = 0.58), closely followed by enterococci (Spearman Rho = 0.57). Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts were predominantly associated with small sized particles (range of 14.3-27.7 microm). All of the microbial indicator groups tested were associated with larger sized particle ranges (> 63.3 microm) except C. perfringens spores which were associated with particles in the size range of 45.5-63.3 microm. Although indicators may rank correlate with Cryptosporidium spp., the variation in settling rates of different microorganisms has significant implications for the use of surrogates to estimate pathogen attenuation within reservoirs. For example, concentrations of Cryptosporidium spp. oocysts were reduced by a factor of 3 on reaching the dam wall, whereas enterococci were reduced by a factor of 10.     

烹饪方式对马铃薯营养成分和生物活性物质影响的研究进展

马铃薯是全球重要的粮食作物,富含营养成分和生物活性物质。马铃薯通常采用煮、蒸、炸、烘焙等烹饪方式。在不同烹饪过程中马铃薯的物理、化学性质和酶活性的变化不同,从而影响马铃薯的营养成分和功能作用。本文综述了不同烹饪方式对马铃薯的营养成分及生物活性物质的影响,分析了烹饪方式对马铃薯抗氧化、抗癌症、调节血糖等功能影响的研究进展,以期为马铃薯的精深加工、综合利用提供参考依据。