Microstructural characterization of autogenous laser welds on 316L stainless steel using EBSD and EDS

This research is concerned with autogenous welding of 316L stainless steel and the microstructure generated by such a process. Autogenous welding does not require a filler material and in this case relies on an initial shallow melt phase to maintain a conduction limited weld. Essentially, a high power laser beam traverses the substrate, with the beam shaped by conventional optics, which produces a Gaussian irradiance distribution; or with a diffractive optical element, used to produce a uniform irradiance distribution. Initial results have shown that due to the nature of the heating cycle, complex microstructures are developed. These fine, complicated microstructures cannot be satisfactorily resolved and quantified using standard optical microscopy techniques. Electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD) and energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) have been carried out on a number of different microstructures prepared using a range of welding parameters. It is demonstrated that the simultaneous determination of the chemistry and crystallography is a very useful tool for rapid identification of the different phases formed on solidification as a consequence of varying welding procedures.     

Scanning electron microscopy and transmission electron microscopy microstructural investigation of high-speed tool steel after Nd:YAG pulsed laser melting

This article presents the microstructure of a pulsed Nd:YAG laser‐melted high‐speed steel, namely HS6‐5‐2. The high chemical homogeneity and fine structure of the melted zone was attributed to high cooling rates due to the short duration of interaction with the Nd:YAG pulsed laser radiation and the relatively small volume of the melted material. The structure obtained in the surface layer after laser melting has a high level of hardness and shows improved wear resistance.     

The effects of plasma nitriding process parameters on the wear characteristics of AISI M2 tool steel

The main aim of this work is to evaluate the effects of the plasma nitriding process on AISI M2 tool steel. In previous work, treatment time and temperature were varied to identify the treatment conditions for good wear behaviour. In the present work, the treatment time was fixed while temperature and gas pressure were varied. Samples were characterised by glow discharge optical spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, X‐ray diffraction, surface microhardness and wear test. The specimens nitrided at 400 and 900 Pa showed the best wear performance, which is possibly due to reduction of the friction coefficient and the low adhesive wear observed. Samples processed at 200 Pa showed spalling during the wear test, indicating a brittle surface. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

A comparative study of the wear behaviour of sintered and laser surface melted AISI M42 high speed steel diluted with iron

Powders of AISI M42 high-speed steel (HSS) were blended with different proportions of water-atomised iron powders. The powders were subsequently submitted to uniaxial pressing and then divided in three lots. The first was submitted to sintering, the second was submitted to sintering plus laser surface melting (LSM) and the third was submitted to sintering plus LSM plus double tempering at the secondary hardening peak temperature of M42 HSS. The objective of this procedure was to evaluate the processing route that leads to reduced porosity in AISI M42 HSS and to higher abrasive wear resistance. Therefore the samples, with different chemical compositions and microstructures, were submitted to a detailed microstructural characterisation followed by microscale hardness and abrasive wear tests. It was observed that LSM leads to almost complete elimination of residual porosity and to the dissolution of large brittle carbides that are present in the as-sintered samples, leading to a homogeneous and extremely fine microstructure. This microstructure is formed of saturated plate martensite and a small proportion of retained austenite. The double tempering treatment, carried out in the laser surface melted samples samples, leads to the elimination of retained austenite and to a decrease of the lattice parameters of martensite due to the precipitation of thin carbides within martensite. As a result, while the hardness of the material in the sintered condition is between 245 and 625 HV (depending on the proportion of dilution with iron), after LSM the hardness is higher than 820 HV in all the samples. Surprisingly, the abrasive wear resistance of the laser melted and of the laser melted and tempered samples is lower than that of the as-sintered ones. Observation of the wear craters by scanning electron microscopy shows that this result is due to the different wear mechanisms acting on the samples processed by different routes.     

Microstructural and hardness investigation of tool steel D2 processed by laser surface melting and alloying

Several techniques can be used to improve surface properties of metals. These can involve changes on the surface chemical composition such as alloying or on the surface microstructure, such as hardening. In the present work, melting of the surface by a 9 kW CO₂ CW laser of wavelength 10.6 μm was used to alter surface features of D2 tool steel. Carbon powder and nitrogen gas were used as sources of alloying elements during laser processing. The effect of various laser parameters (power and speed) on the microstructure and hardness of D2 tool steel was investigated. Laser powers from 1 to 8 kW and laser speeds from 5 to 15 mm/s were employed. It was found that as the laser power increases, the hardness of the melted zone decreases while that of the heat-affected zone increases. On the other hand, the depth of both of melted and heat-affected zones increases with power.     

Direct laser cladding of SiC dispersed AISI 316L stainless steel

The present study concerns development of SiC dispersed (5 and 20 wt%) AISI 316L stainless steel metal-matrix composites by direct laser cladding with a high power diode laser and evaluation of its mechanical properties (microhardness and wear resistance). A defect free and homogeneous composite layer is formed under optimum processing condition. The microstructure consists of partially dissociated SiC, Cr₃C₂ and Fe₂Si in grain refined stainless steel matrix. The microhardness of the clad layer increases to a maximum of 340 VHN (for 5% SiC dispersed) and 800 VHN (for 20% SiC dispersed) as compared to 150 VHN of commercially available AISI 316L stainless steel. Direct laser clad SiC dispersed AISI 316L stainless steel has shown an improved wear resistance against diamond surface with a maximum improvement in 20% SiC dispersed AISI 316L stainless steel. The mechanism of wear was predominantly abrasive in nature.     

Microstructural and microtextural characterization of oxide scale on steel using electron backscatter diffraction

High‐temperature oxidation of steel has been extensively studied. The microstructure of iron oxides is, however, not well understood because of the difficulty in imaging it using conventional methods, such as optical or electron microscopy. A knowledge of the oxide microstructure and texture is critical in understanding how the oxide film behaves during high‐temperature deformation of steels and more importantly how it can be removed following processing. Recently, electron back‐scatter diffraction (EBSD) has proved to be a powerful technique for distinguishing the different phases in scales. This technique gives valuable information both on the microstructure and on the orientation relationships between the steel and the scale layers. In the current study EBSD has been used to investigate the microstructure and microtexture of iron oxide layers grown on interstitial free steel at different times and temperatures. Heat treatments have been carried out under normal oxidation conditions in order to relate the results to real steel manufacturing in industry. The composition, morphologies, microstructure and microtexture of selected conditions have been studied using EBSD.     

Electrical discharge machining of the AISI D6 tool steel: Prediction and modeling of the material removal rate and tool wear ratio

In this investigation, response surface method was used to predict and optimize the material removal rate and tool wear ratio during electrical discharge machining of AISI D6 tool steel. Pulse on time, pulse current, and voltage were considered as input process parameters. Furthermore, the analysis of variance was employed for checking the developed model results. The results revealed that higher values of pulse on time resulted in higher values of material removal rate and lower amounts of tool wear ratio. In addition, increasing the pulse current caused to higher amounts of both material removal rate and tool wear ratio. Moreover, the higher the input voltage, the lower the both material removal rate and tool wear ratio. The optimal condition to obtain a maximum of material removal rate and a minimum of tool wear rate was 40 μs, 14 A and 150 V, respectively for the pulse on time, pulse current and input voltage.     

Microstructural,hardening, and wear characteristics of surface re-melted AISI 410S stainless steel via fiber laser process

Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology - AISI 410S ferritic stainless steel was surface melted via a continuous fiber laser at different scan rates. The microstructural characteristics,...     

Ball burnishing of tool steel

In place of the traditional methods of finishing a surface, the ball-burnishing process was investigated. Experimental work was conducted on a vertical machining center to establish the effects of various burnishing parameters on the surface finish of ASSAB XW-5 steel (high-carbon, high-chrome steel), including burnishing speed, ball material, lubricant, burnishing forces (depth of penetration), and feed. Within the parameter space explored, it was found that the burnishing speed affects the surface finish, with a burnishing speed of 1,200 mm/min giving the worst surface finish. WC (Tungsten carbide) ball gave the best and most consistent surface finish. Grease was a better lubricant than cutting oil. By varying the burnishing speed, the burnishing forces varied also, and these forces showed no obvious relationship to the surface finish of the burnished workpiece.     

Investigations on surface integrity of AISI 1045 using LPB tool

Low plasticity burnishing (LPB) is relatively a new method of surface enhancement, which raises the burnishing to the next level of sophistication. LPB can provide deep stable surface compression for improved surface integrity characteristics. The present study focuses on the surface roughness, microhardness, surface integrity and fatigue life aspects of AISI 1045 work material, using full factorial design of experiments. The assessment of the surface integrity aspects on work material was done, in terms of evaluating the interaction effects of parameters, identifying the predominant factor amongst the selected parameters, their order of significance and setting the levels of the factors for minimizing surface roughness and/or maximizing surface hardness and fatigue life. Mathematical expressions were developed for surface characteristics of importance as response variables. Subsurface microhardness studies were also done to assess the depth of compression, altered material zone and correlate fatigue life with surface roughness and surface hardness. The process can be applied to critical components effectively, as the LPB process today has significant process cycle time advantages, and lower capital cost. Additional cost reduction will be realized by introducing proven high speed machining concepts into the LPB process.     

硬车代磨表面粗糙度试验研究

使用硬质合金刀具、陶瓷刀具和PCBN刀具对渗碳淬硬钢20CrMnTi进行干式车削试验,通过测量不同切削条件下的表面粗糙度值,得出切削速度、进给量对表面粗糙度的影响规律,验证了以车代磨的干式切削渗碳淬硬钢20CrMnTi的可行性.     

An investigation of tool wear in high-speed turning of AISI 4340 steel

A commercially available insert has been used to turn an AISI 4340 steel at speeds placed between 325 and 1000 m/min. The flank wear was measured in connection to cutting time. This is to determine the tool life defined as the usable time that has elapsed before the flank wear has reached the criterion value.It is shown that an increase in cutting speed causes a higher decrease of the time of the second gradual stage of the wear process. This is due to the thin coat layer which is rapidly peeled off when high-speed turning.The investigation included the realization of a wear model in relation to time and to cutting speed. An empirical model has also been developed for tool life determination in connection with cutting speed.On the basis of the results obtained it is possible to set optimal cutting speed to achieve the maximum tool life.     

Influence of cryosoaking period on wear characteristics and surface topography of M35 tool steel

Cryogenic treatment affects tool steels wherein alteration in microstructural features like phases, uniform precipitation of carbides is observed. In this work, improvement in wear resistance of cryotreated material with microstructural features and surface roughness of material has been correlated. Samples of AISI M35 steel were hardened at 1200°C, followed by triple tempering at 555°C in the salt bath, subsequently subjected to cryogenic treatment at minus 185°C for varying cryosoaking period (4–32?h) followed by soft tempering at 100°C. Such samples were characterized for hardness, microstructure, carbide density, wear rate and surface roughness. A correlation of carbide density and roughness has been established with wear resistance.     

ANN-based prediction of surface and hole quality in drilling of AISI D2 cold work tool steel

This paper focuses on artificial neural network (ANN)-based modeling of surface and hole quality in drilling of AISI D2 cold work tool steel with uncoated titanium nitride (TiN) and titanium aluminum nitride (TiAlN) monolayer- and TiAlN/TiN multilayer-coated-cemented carbide drills. A number of drilling experiments were conducted at all combinations of different cutting speeds (50, 55, 60, and 65 m/min) and feed rates (0.063 and 0.08 mm/rev) to obtain training and testing data. The experimental results showed that the surface roughness (Ra) and roundness error (Re) values were obtained with the TiN monolayer- and TiAlN/TiN multilayer-coated drills, respectively. Using some of the experimental data in training stage, an ANN model was developed. To evaluate the performance of the developed ANN model, ANN predictions were compared with the experimental results. It was found that the determination coefficient values are more than 0.99 for both training and test data. Root mean square error and mean error percentage values were very low. ANN results showed that ANN can be used as an effective modeling technique in accurate prediction of the Ra and Re.     

高锰钢切削刀具的设计

高锰钢切削极易产生硬化层,很难加工。在生产实践中,通过合理地选择刀具材料、刀具结构、切削用量等,可以很好解决高锰钢难加工的问题,保证了高锰钢的加工质量。     

Wear properties of friction stir processed AISI D2 tool steel

Influences of microstructural and textural properties of friction stir processing (FSP) on dry reciprocating wear properties of AISI D2 tool steel are investigated in this study. The mechanical improvement is attributed not only to the homogenous distribution of very small carbides in a refined matrix, but also to significant development of textures during FSP. The excellent wear resistance is ascribed to nanohardness enhancement of the FSPed steel. Dominant shear components of {111} 〈110〉 and {112} 〈111〉 with the lowest Taylor׳s factor and the high density of close-packed planes formation significantly enhance the wear resistance of FSPed sample at 500 rpm.     

变质M2高速钢稀土离子硫碳氮共渗研究

对Y-K-Na复合变质的M2高速钢进行离子硫碳氮共渗和稀土离子硫碳氮共渗处理,研究稀土元素对复合变质M2高速钢离子硫碳氮共渗组织和性能的影响。试验结果表明:稀土元素改善变质M2高速钢渗层组织,提高表面硬度,使渗层硬度梯度平缓,可有效地提高其抗摩擦磨损的能力。     

氧碘化学激光器腔镜表面缺陷的观察与分析

为了明确氧碘化学激光器腔镜损伤的原因,对腔镜表面的缺陷进行了研究。利用扫描探针显微镜观察了激光器腔镜表面缺陷,分析了腔镜表面微观形貌,讨论了常见缺陷的形状及成因。然后,建立了简化的带污染物腔镜的模型。利用COMSOL Multiphysics软件对环形光束辐照腔镜进行了仿真计算。最后,给出了缺陷大小、功率密度和腔镜表面温度的关系,分析了吸附层对腔镜熔融损伤的影响。计算结果表明:腔镜表面污染物大小不变时,激光辐照的功率密度越大,温度增长越快,薄膜表面越容易出现熔融损伤;腔镜表面污染物半径达到2.3mm时,腔镜薄膜即可出现熔融损伤。另外,吸附层吸收系数增加1%,腔镜最高温度增加约210K。本文所得结论可为分析腔镜损伤原因和制定腔镜更换依据提供参考。     

现代刀具材料系列讲座（三）：涂层高速钢刀具

介绍了涂层高速钢刀具的切削性能,并列出了涂层与未涂层高速钢刀具的对比切削数据。