Memory for pictures: Does an age-related decline exist?

Examined the effects of varying detail on memory. In Exp I, pictorial embellishment was varied by presenting 27 Ss aged 60+ yrs and 30 undergraduates with normal photographs, high-contrast photographs, or line drawings, and testing their memory immediately and 4 wks later. All of the Ss did best with the most elaborate pictures (normal photographs), and old Ss remembered as well as young at the immediate but not at the delayed interval. In Exp II, with 21 old Ss and 21 18–36 yr olds, detail was varied by adding background to line drawings of a central object. Ss of both ages profited from enhanced background detail, and there were no differences in memory as a function of age. Exp III replicated Exp II, except that Ss (10 elderly and 17 college students) studied the pictures under divided attention conditions. Again, Ss of both ages recognized elaborate pictures best, and no significant age differences emerged. Results suggest that old and young adults profit from visual embellishment and that memory for meaningful pictures remains relatively intact with age. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial localization in sequential letter displays.

Conducted 2 experiments with a total of 26 undergraduates to investigate the ability to locate letters presented successively along a horizontal row. The letters were displayed for 5 msec, and the inter-letter interval varied between 0 and 200 msec. In Exp I, localization decreased as the inter-letter interval was increased to 50 msec. With further increments in inter-letter interval, performance improved. However, there was a correlation between the positions of the letters in space and in time. Exp II indicated that the recovery in spatial localization with inter-letter intervals greater than 50 msec is spurious (i.e., it does not occur if the correlation is minimized). (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive capacity differences among writers.

Examined differences between good and poor writers on 6 cognitive-processing tasks. In Exp I, 3 tasks were employed to ascertain differences between 15 good and 15 poor undergraduate writers on recall and manipulation of information: an ordered letters task, an iconic memory task, and a letter reordering task. In Exp II, 3 additional tasks were employed to examine 17 good and 16 poor undergraduate writers' abilities to hold and manipulate larger amounts of information: a word reordering task, a sentence reordering task, and a paragraph assembly task. In both experiments, the results reveal significant differences between good and poor writers' abilities to hold and simultaneously manipulate information. Exp III replicated the results of Exps I and II with 15 good and 14 poor high school writers. It is suggested that the observed differences between good and poor writers can be attributed to differences in elementary information-processing programs. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing time and memory for pictures.

Postexposure processing of an iconic memory following the presentation of pictures of complex, colored, naturalistic scenes was assessed in 3 experiments which examined the effects of exposure duration and mask delay upon recognition memory. Ss were 50 undergraduates. Exposure durations ranged from 50 to 550 msec and mask delays from 0 to 500 msec. For exposure durations of 300 msec and longer, recognition accuracy was primarily determined by exposure duration, and mask delay had no significant effect. For exposure durations of less than 300 msec, postexposure processing continued for up to 250 msec following the offset of a target picture, and recognition accuracy was a function of total processing time (i.e., the total time separating target and mask onsets.) This reciprocity between exposure duration and mask delay was similar to that previously demonstrated for verbal materials. The processing-time/recognition memory relationship was also shown to be due to differences in initial encoding. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generation effects with nonwords: The role of test appropriateness.

Assessed the role of test appropriateness by studying generation effects with nonwords in 2 experiments, using 96 undergraduates. In Exp I, which used the switching of 2 letters as the generate task, Ss showed better memory for generated nonwords when the retention test assessed memory for which letters had been switched; in Exp II, a generation effect for nonwords emerged when Ss were required to generate items again at test, prior to the recognition decision. Results demonstrate that a robust generation effect can occur with meaningless items, as long as retention tests show sensitivity to what Ss actually generate in the nonword case. It is suggested that to allow for a generation effect to emerge, it is necessary to match what is actually generated with what is tested in the retention environment. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual specificity effects on word stem completion: Beyond transfer appropriate processing?

Explored the determinants of perceptual specificity effects (PSEs) in visual word-stem completion. 256 undergraduates participated in 4 experiments. In Exp 1, Ss completed a stem completion task after a number-search task in study-condition and -case phases. Ss were assessed for their awareness of the study-task relationship and compliance with instructions. In Exp 2, retrieval instructions and study task were manipulated within Ss and between 4 study-test blocks. Ss in Exp 3 completed study-test blocks with unintentional test instructions as in Exp 2. In Exp 4, retention interval, and study-task and -case were manipulated within the Ss. In Exp 1, PSEs on the stem completion task depended on perceptual encoding when Ss' awareness of the study-test relationship was limited. In Exps 2–4, these effects depended on semantic encoding. PSEs after short retention intervals were independent of encoding task. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retention of order information for sounds and words.

In 4 experiments with a total of 160 undergraduates and 2 university staff members, short segments of naturalistic sounds were compared with their verbal labels in several tasks requiring retention of order information. Results of Exp I show that ordered recall of 7-item sequences of sounds was poorer than words with interstimulus intervals of 500 msec or shorter, while the difference disappeared with an interstimulus interval of 1 sec. Results of Exp II–IV, which extended the comparison to running memory span, serial probe, and probe recognition tasks, show a superiority of words over sounds in the recency component of the serial position curves in each case. Taken together, findings support the idea that verbal coding facilitates retention of order information, and discount interpretations of the sound–word difference based on higher-order processing strategies or retrieval problems. (French summary) (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pictorial mnemonics for phonics.

Evaluated whether picture mnemonics help prereaders learn letter–sound associations in 2 experiments with 20 1st graders (Exp I), 30 preschoolers, and kindergartners (Exp II). Pictures integrating the associations were compared with disassociated pictures and with a no-picture control condition. Ss in the integrated-picture group learned 5 letter-sound associations (e.g., f, /f/), each represented by a picture whose shape included the letter (e.g., letter f drawn as the stem of a flower) and whose name (flower) began with the letter's sound. Ss in the disassociated-picture group learned letter–sound associations with pictures having the same names as the integrated pictures, but drawn differently—without letter shapes. Ss in the control group learned associations with picture names but no pictures. Prior to letter–sound training, all groups were taught how to segment the initial sounds of the picture names. Results reveal that Ss taught with integrated mnemonics learned more letter–sound associations and also more letter–picture associations than did the other 2 groups, which did not differ. Integrated pictures were effective because they linked 2 otherwise unconnected items in memory. It is concluded that the shape of letters included in pictures reminded learners of previously seen pictures with those shapes whose names began with the relevant letter sounds. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perception of misoriented words and letter strings.

In Exp I, 8 undergraduates were presented with English words transformed in any of 4 combinations of rotation and distortion of spatial relationships between letters, and recognition time was measured. Both misorientation and distortion of relationships slowed down recognition, and their effects were additive. A similar effect of transformation was also found for strings of unrelated letters (Exp II, 10 undergraduates). With the word stimuli, Ss were given different amounts of information about the transformation prior to presentation. Prior information reduced the differences between mean processing times for different transformations but did not change their ordinal relationships. Information about order of letters was more helpful than information about orientation. The time to recognize a transformed word was positively related to the number of letters in the word, and the effect of the number of letters interacted with the type of transformation. Results support the hypothesis that the process of normalizing a misoriented word or nonword operates on it as a single unit rather than on each letter separately. (French summary) (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of divided attention on memory for items and their context.

Examined differences between item and context memory using divided attention at encoding and retrieval. Ss, in 3 experiments, were presented with word lists and were instructed to learn the items (i.e., words), the intrinsic context (i.e., the color of the cards on which each word was presented), and the extrinsic context (i.e., the temporal order of the words). In Exp 1 24 undergraduates (aged 20–32 yrs) participated in a digit-monitoring and memory tasks. In Exp 2 the authors examined the effect of divided attention at retrieval using 24 undergraduates (aged 18–29 yrs). In Exp 3 the authors examined memory performance when divided attention was employed at encoding on all lists, and attentional load was manipulated at retrieval using 24 undergraduates (aged 19–32 yrs). Among young adults, in comparison to conditions of full attention, divided attention applied at encoding only or retrieval only resulted in equally lower performance on all memory tasks; in contrast, divided attention applied at both encoding and retrieval resulted in lower performance only on memory for temporal order. The findings support the idea that memory for temporal order requires greater attentional resources and strategic processing than memory for items. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Rater selective attention ability and appraisal effectiveness: The effect of a cognitive style on the accuracy of differentiation among ratees.

Examined the effect of the level of selective-attention ability of 359 undergraduate raters on the accuracy of ratings in 2 studies. A group-administered measure of field dependence–independence was used to divide Ss into high- or low-selectivity levels. In Study 1, 288 psychology undergraduates rated 4 vignettes of instructors by either direct inspection or from memory. In Study 2, 71 management undergraduates rated the vignettes. Results show that memory manipulation significantly influenced rating accuracy. In both studies, Ss high in selectivity provided significantly more accurate appraisals than did Ss low in selectivity. It is suggested that cognitive operations underly the effects found in these studies. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for picture fragments in monkeys and humans.

Utilized a delayed matching-to-sample procedure to study recognition memory for picture fragments in 33 undergraduates and 3 squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus). Three types of masks varied in the part of the picture they covered, either the center, the periphery, or randomly selected small portions of the picture (noise mask). In Exp I, Ss saw whole sample pictures and had to respond to fragments as comparison pictures. In Exp II, fragments were presented as samples and whole pictures as comparison stimuli. In Exp III, both the samples and comparisons were picture fragments. Recognition accuracy improved in both monkeys and humans as the percentage of the picture exposed increased, and accuracy was lowest with a central mask, intermediate with a noise mask, and highest with a peripheral mask. Data may be used to argue for similar content of visual memories in monkeys and humans. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concreteness of relational effects on recall of adjective–noun pairs.

Studied the effects of concreteness and relatedness of adjective–noun pairs on free recall, cued recall, and memory integration. The authors report on 2 experiments in which Ss read phrases or sentences containing adjective–noun pairs that vary in rated concreteness and intrapair relatedness. In Exp 1 normative ratings on imagery and relatedness were provided by 23 graduate and 20 undergraduate students. 64 undergraduates participated in the memory experiment. Exp 2 extended Exp 1 by using complete sentences rather than adjective–noun word pairs. 72 undergraduates volunteered to participate in the memory experiment and a separate group of 14 volunteered to participate in a sentence rating task. Consistent with predictions from dual coding theory and prior results with noun–noun pairs, both experiments showed that the effects of concreteness were strong and independent of relatedness in free recall and cued recall. The 2 attributes also had independent (additive) effects on integrative memory as measured by conditionalized free recall of pairs. Integration as measured by the increment from free to cued recall occurred consistently only when pairs were high in both concreteness and relatedness. Relatedness, adjective imagery, and noun imagery ratings, along with word frequencies for adjectives and nouns, and sentences with relatedness ratings are appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intact and long-lasting repetition priming in amnesia.

In 2 experiments, the ability of amnesic patients to exhibit long-lasting perceptual priming after a single exposure to pictures was evaluated. Ss named pictures as quickly as possible on a single occasion and later named the same pictures mixed with new pictures. In Exp 1, amnesic patients exhibited fully intact priming effects lasting at least 7 days. In Exp 2, the priming effect for both groups was shown to depend on both highly specific visual information and on less visual, more conceptual information. In contrast, recognition memory was severely impaired in the patients, as assessed by both accuracy and response time. The results provide the 1st report of a long-lasting priming effect in amnesic patients, based on a single encounter, which occurs as strongly in the patients as in normal Ss. Together with other recent findings, the results suggest that long-lasting priming and recognition memory depend on separate brain systems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Spatial memory in pigeons on the radial maze.

A series of 7 experiments with 10 pigeons showed, contrary to recent suggestions that pigeons show little or no spatial memory on the radial maze, highly accurate performance by Ss on an 8-arm radial maze. In Exp I, Ss were trained on successive phases that raised the number of alleys to be remembered from 1 to 4. In Exp II, Ss were allowed to search the maze for food with all 8 arms open. Measures of spatial memory showed that Ss performed at a level equivalent to that found with rats in previous research by A. B. Bond et al (see record 1982-25052-001). In Exp III, testing with massed trials revealed proactive interference. Ss were able to form reference memory for subsets of baited and unbaited alleys in Exp VI. In Exp VII, Ss learned about quantities of food associated with 4 different alleys and ordered their alley choices from the largest to the smallest reward. Contrary to the previous findings with rats, Ss in Exp IV showed forgetting over retention intervals of 0–360 sec between forced and free choices. It is concluded that spatial memory in pigeons generally shows the same properties as that in rats. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bizarre imagery: The misremembered mnemonic.

Conducted 2 experiments with 56 undergraduates to measure the effects of bizarre imagery and image interaction on the brief and long-term memory of word pairs. Ss in Exp I performed an incidental learning task and were administered free- and cued-recall tests either 5 min or 1 wk after the task. Ss in Exp II received more intensive training in the learning task and completed 2 cued-recall tests in the same session and another cued-recall test 1 wk later. In both experiments, bizarre imagery did not improve memory more than plausible, interactive imagery. The degree of interaction in the image was a strong determinant of cued-recall performance at both retention intervals. Most Ss in Exp II believed that they had remembered more bizarre than plausible pairs, even though this was clearly not the case. Possible reasons for the acceptance of the notion that bizarre imagery improves memory are discussed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Episodic spatial memory in adulthood.

Two experiments examined age-related differences in memory for spatial location information in a museum exhibit (Exp 1) and in a secretarial office (Exp 2). In Exp 1, Ss were the visitors to the exhibit (N?=?302, 15–74 yrs of age), and memory was assessed using a map test. In Exp 2, Ss were 64 young adults (M?=?21.2 yrs) and 32 older adults (M?=?71.2 yrs), and memory was assessed using both a map test and a relocation test. The relocation test required Ss to replace the to-be-remembered targets where they appeared at study. Exp 1 showed an age-related decline in spatial memory performance, and it placed the onset of this decline in the 6th decade of life. Exp 2 showed an age-related decline on both tests, but age effects were smaller on the relocation test than on the map test, and when Ss knew that spatial memory would be tested than when they were not informed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Echoic memory processes in good and poor readers.

Conducted 4 experiments to determine whether echoic memory plays a role in differences between good and poor readers. In Exp I, with 9 poor (mean age 11.05 yrs) and 9 good (mean age 10.9 yrs) readers, and Exp II, with 12 poor (mean age 10.85 yrs) and 12 good (mean age 10.7 yrs) readers, a suffix procedure was used in which the S was read a list of digits with either a tone control or the word go appended to the list. For lists that exceeded the length of the Ss' memory span by 1 digit (i.e., that avoided ceiling effects), poor readers showed a larger decrement in the suffix condition than did good readers. In Exp III, with 14 poor (mean age 10.64 yrs) and 14 good (mean age 10.83 yrs) readers, Ss shadowed words presented to 1 ear at a rate determined to give 75–85% shadowing accuracy. The item presented to the nonattended ear were words and an occasional digit. At various intervals after the presentation of the digit, a light signaled that the S was to cease shadowing and attempt to recall any digit that had occurred in the nonattended ear recently. Whereas good and poor readers recalled the digit equally if tested immediately after presentation, poor readers showed a faster decline in recall of the digit as retention interval increased. In Exp IV, using Ss from Exp II, bursts of white noise were separated by 9–400 msec of silence, and the S was to say whether there were 1 or 2 sounds presented. There were no differences in detectability functions for good and poor readers. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of distinctiveness, repetition and semantic priming on the recognition of face familiarity.

Examined the independence of effects of repetition from those of distinctiveness and semantic priming in the recognition of familiar faces. In Exp 1 (16 undergraduate Ss), repetition priming was shown to be additive with face distinctiveness in a face familiarity decision task, in which Ss made speeded familiarity decisions to a sequence of famous and unfamiliar faces. Exp 2 (16 undergraduate and postgraduate Ss) examined the combined effects of distinctiveness and semantic priming. The effect of distinctiveness was additive with that of semantic priming. Exp 3 (32 undergraduates and postgraduates) used a more powerful design in which effects of distinctiveness and semantic priming were assessed while all items were repeated 3 times during the course of the experiment. Effects of repetition and distinctiveness were again additive, as were effects of repetition and semantic priming. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of distinctive features on recognition of incomplete pictures.

Conducted 2 experiments to determine the effects of distinctive features on recognition of incomplete pictures. Two sets of fragmented picture stimuli were designed: Set A preserved 75% and Set B preserved 25% of the distinctive features of the objects pictured. Within each set of stimuli, a complete (C), an intermediate (I), and a most incomplete (MI) representation of the objects was constructed. In Exp I, 60 Ss of 3 different age groups (3–4 and 5–6 yrs and undergraduates) were tested on the MI representations of either Set A or Set B. Results indicate significant differences in the age groups and in stimulus sets. In Exp II, 36 children (mean age 4 yrs 6 mo) were trained on either the C or the I Set A or the I Set B representations. After a day's delay, the Ss were tested on Set A or Set B MI representations of the objects and to novel representations. Results show significant differences among training conditions and in the test of the stimulus sets. The concepts of filtering and abstraction of distinctive features as discussed by F. J. Gibson (1969) are used in interpreting the results. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)