The Riverside and Berwyn experience: Contrasts in landscape structure, perceptions of the urban landscape, and their effects on people

Humans not only structure the landscape through their activities, but their perceptions of nature are affected by the spatial and temporal arrangements (structure) in the landscape. Our understanding of these interactions, however, is limited. We explored the relationship between landscape structure and peoples’ perceptions of nature in the Chicago, IL, USA, suburbs of Riverside and Berwyn because they offer contrasting paradigms of an urban landscape. Designed in the 1800s by Frederick Law Olmsted, Riverside has several unique design elements (curvilinear streets, ample setbacks, parkways of variable width with mowed grass and naturalistic groupings of trees) that define the structure and composition of this landscape. The urban forest was the keystone of Olmsted's desire to create a harmonious community characterized by “refined sylvan beauty”. In contrast, the adjacent community of Berwyn has right-angled streets with small lots and narrow setbacks for houses. Differences in landscape structure between the two communities produced differences in the diversity, size, and composition of woody vegetation. As measured by patch-size distribution, Riverside had greater diversity in landscape structure than Berwyn, and in turn, Riverside had greater diversity in the composition and size of the woody vegetation compared to Berwyn. Riverside tended toward a “natural” appearance with vegetation, while yards in Berwyn tended to be trimmed and edged. Significant differences between the mean ratings of Riverside and Berwyn respondents were found for six of seven community attribute categories. Riverside participants reported receiving greater benefit from the visual and nature-related features of the urban forest than did Berwyn respondents. Berwyn residents ranked social atmosphere for the community and locomotion (wayfinding) highest among the seven community attribute categories. Despite differences between the two communities, residents valued the green residential environment provided by vegetation. However, the more diverse urban landscape as measured by built structures, woody vegetation, and lot size and shape proved to be more satisfying to the residents of these two communities. The design concepts developed and implemented by Olmsted more than century ago in Riverside are still relevant to city planners striving to develop living environments that are satisfying to urban and suburban residents.     

Land-use planning and public preferences: What can we learn from choice experiment method?

In this article we discuss the economic approach to evaluate landscape preferences for land-use planning. We then use the choice experiment method to examine public preferences for three landscape features – hedgerows, farm buildings and scrubland – in the Monts d’Arrée region (in Brittany, France), in the context of re-design of landscape conservation policy by the local environmental institute. Surveys were undertaken on two user groups, visitors and local residents. Our objective was to obtain empirical evidence of the difference between the preferences of tourists and residents, for landscape attributes. We then analysed the welfare changes of tourists and residents affected by different landscape programmes. Our results point out the strong divergence between the landscape preferences of the public and those of local public actors. The comparison of the estimated values of willingness to pay for single-attribute landscaping action shows some divergence between residents’ and tourists’ ranking of preferences for agricultural landscape areas. Finally, we find, at least for the socio-economic context examined in this study, that apart from its social, cultural and aesthetic values, rural landscape has economic values, and that agricultural landscape preservation tends to be more beneficial to low-income social groups.     

Does urban form matter in solo and joint activity engagement?

This research examines how the residential built environment relates to residents’ solo versus joint engagement in shopping, dining, and recreational/fitness activities. Using data from the 2006 Greater Triangle Travel Survey in North Carolina, individual activity engagement is innovatively measured using two indicators: total time spent alone and total time jointly spent with household members on a specific non-work activity type. The impact of the built environment on non-work activity engagement is then estimated using Heckman sample selection models along with a seemingly unrelated estimation system. We find that residents living closer to parks and department stores on average are more likely to participate in out-of-home recreation and shopping activities. A comparison of coefficients in solo versus joint engagement models shows that park accessibility is much more important to household joint participation than to solo participation in recreational activities. The research generates new knowledge on how the built environment may influence solo versus joint activity engagement differently. The findings are useful to urban planners who are interested in reviving local economy and promoting active living/social interaction.     

Neighborhood socioeconomic status is a useful predictor of perennial landscape vegetation in residential neighborhoods and embedded small parks of Phoenix, AZ

Though landscape vegetation in cities is human-mediated and often more diverse than that in surrounding environments, little work has been done to quantify ways that humans shape its composition. Our study identified important sources of variation in perennial vegetation composition within residential neighborhoods of Phoenix, AZ, USA. We hypothesized that neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) should offer some capacity for predicting landscape vegetation richness and abundance in both residential neighborhoods and embedded small city parks. As predicted, neighborhood vegetation richness increased across a gradient of low to high SES (R²=0.89) with the most variation explained by median family income (R²=0.86). In contrast, neighborhood vegetation abundance decreased across a gradient of increased time since disturbance (R²=0.62) with the most variation explained by median year of neighborhood development (R²=0.56). Median year of neighborhood development was also the dominant factor (R²=0.47) in explaining decreased park vegetation abundance across a gradient of increased time since disturbance. We were least able to predict park vegetation richness and could account for only 29% of variation using a SES gradient model with percent of population having a graduate education as the most dominant factor. In residential neighborhoods, we identified more than 3 times the number of landscape vegetation taxa than an earlier report and also found a higher percentage of native vegetation in parks than in surrounding neighborhoods. We discuss these different compositional patterns of perennial vegetation in neighborhoods and embedded parks in terms of their relationship to socioeconomic and disturbance gradients, and a conceptual framework of “top-down” and “bottom-up” human management influences. Our study intimates that residential vegetation composition in rapidly expanding, arid cities like Phoenix is largely driven by “luxury” and legacy effects and should be most rich in neighborhoods with the highest socioeconomic standing and most abundant in newest neighborhoods.     

The role of agroforestry networks in landscape socioeconomic processes: the potential and limits of the contingent valuation method

Agroforestry networks can be a means to achieve landscape amelioration. Some authorities of the Lagoon of Venice drainage basin (Italy) are planning, amongst other actions to control pollution in the Lagoon, to reintroduce agroforestry by means of a GIS-supported design procedure. The goals of this paper were to assess (i) the contingent valuation (CV) (willingness to pay and willingness to accept) of agroforestry networks and its relationship with socioeconomic and agroforestry role variables, (ii) the coherence between agro-economic policies and farmers expectations, (iii) the relationship between the value of agroforestry as a “shared good” and water quality (non-point source pollution). Respondents associate a positive value/preference to the agroforestry network implementation, although this value is strongly affected firstly by their identity with the landscape and secondly by their income. The motivations of farmers’ evaluation are precise and the agroforestry network is considered not only as an “ethical object” but also as a concrete element of their own cultural and economic world. In this case the contingent value (in particular, in terms of acceptance) increases with the farmer’s economic capacity, and the farmer’s valuation is not linked only to the “good” but also to the “service” offered for implementing it. The expectations of farmers regarding an agroforestry plantation were lower than European Union incentives at the time of survey, and a lack of results in this field is probably linked to poor information and to bureaucratic difficulties. Even if there is general knowledge on water quality, there is little awareness on the non-point source pollution control effect of agroforestry buffer plantations, either in the common people or in those who are environmentally trained (e.g. planning university students). In every case the agroforestry “shared good” evaluation is high enough to permit efficient and supported intervention policies. These results confirm that landscape choices strongly involve issues of identity, perceived rights and evaluation capacity that cannot be simply resolved in terms of preference cost benefit analyses, but a clever use of the CV allows an identification of these same limitations and a partial estimation of them.     

Turning brownfields into green space in the City of Toronto

Since the mid-1980s, policy makers and planners in North America and Europe have been paying significantly more attention to measures designed to foster sustainable development and improve the quality of life in urban areas. One issue that has received widespread political support has been the cleanup and redevelopment of under-utilized brownfield sites in urban areas. In Canada and the US, the focus of policy-making and redevelopment efforts has been on redeveloping brownfield sites for industrial, commercial, or residential uses that provide economic benefits through tax revenues and/or jobs. However, there has been a growing recognition among community groups and environmental organizations that brownfields hold enormous potential for “greening” city environments, through the implementation of parks, playgrounds, trails, greenways, and other open spaces. The objectives of the current research are to examine the issues, obstacles and processes involved in remediating potentially contaminated urban brownfield sites and converting them into green spaces, to identify the benefits that these green spaces can bring to the community and culture, and to understand the specific planning processes that it involves. Data for this study were collected through a review of 10 pertinent “greening” case studies and personal interviews with relevant stakeholders. Toronto’s brownfield-to-green space redevelopment experience has implications for cities across North America undergoing brownfield planning and seeking to enhance urban quality of life.     

Lock living: Urban sprawl in Mediterranean cities

“Lock living” refers to the importance of security design, consumed as a commodity, in the new suburban residential landscapes of Mediterranean cities. This article summarizes the process of urban sprawl that has developed in the cities of Southern Europe in recent decades. It presents the main consequences of this evolution, regarding changes in residential landscape. Mediterranean cities have been historically characterised by the archetypal image of density, urban complexity and social diversity. However, the increasing development of urban sprawl shows a very different urban scenario. Metropolitan spaces along the edges of the motorways and orbital ring roads are developing the type of residential landscape that was, until not so long ago, exclusively associated with the cities of the Anglo-Saxon urban tradition. New low-density residential areas show the proliferation of territories manifesting the same morphological criteria in different cities. From a cultural perspective, these standardised landscapes mean the production of residential areas designed on the basis of a thematization of the American suburb. This iconographic display dresses them up as private-urban-ecological-thematic paradises, as a residential landscape that becomes image more than territory and, in this sense, a commodity. This commodification process refers both to the residential space and the inhabitants’ lifestyles as the domestic landscape, created by private security, clearly shows.     

Media strategies for improving an unfavorable city image

Today, as cities attempt to acquire a favorable image among investors, immigrants and tourists, the leaders of many cities believe that the unfavorable images and stereotypes associated with their names are obstacles that forestall a brighter future. The object of this article is to present a review summarizing media strategies, that local decision-makers can employ to deal with city image-related crises, and to reverse a city’s negative image. The article first deals with the marketing of cities, images and stereotypes, with image management and with techniques geared to successfully deliver campaign messages. It then presents 10 strategies to improve a city’s negative image: encouraging visits to the city; hosting spotlight events; turning negative characteristics into positive characteristics; changing the city’s name, logo or slogan; cultivating the residents’ local pride; solving the problem that led to the formation of the negative image; delivering counter-stereotypical messages; ignoring the stereotype; acknowledging the negative image; and geographic association or separation in the campaign.     

Using greenways to reclaim nature in Brazilian cities

This paper presents eight recent case studies of greenways proposed or implemented in Brazil ranging in scale from a state-wide plan to landscape design for a specific site and also describes the strategies used in each example to preserve, restore and create green spaces. Each case study is analyzed according to its capacity to contribute to a more sustainable urban environment and to foster a more livable and significant landscape. This “blue” and “green” infrastructure is happening as a consequence of changes in the criteria used by public administration and private agents which previously saw each open creek, wetland or forest patch in the middle of or adjacent to an urban area as an empty space and a potential building or road construction site. This more environmentally concerned approach to planning and design, previously shared only by some visionaries in universities and other research centers, is gaining momentum. It is becoming visible across the whole spectrum of Brazilian cities and regions, and is becoming part of the agendas of local communities and public administration.These case studies were chosen from a survey undertaken by the authors among planners, designers and researchers in universities, in public and non-governmental bodies and in the private sector, involved in the planning and designing of greenways.     

Comprehensive concept planning of urban greening based on ecological principles: a case study in Beijing, China

Greenspace is an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, esthetically, recreationally and economically. Beijing Province is in north of China, and has a total area of 16,807.8 km² and a population of about 13.8 million. This paper aims to develop a comprehensive conceptual framework for urban greening of Beijing Province based on landscape ecological principles. It attempts to answer how to establish an urban greening plan at the regional, city and neighborhood levels to achieve long-term sustainability. At the regional level, a big natural and semi-natural forest area in the northwest and an ecological buffer belt in the southeast are planned to protect the environmental quality of Beijing and provide habitats for wildlife. At the city level, a green network system of green wedges, parks and green corridors has been proposed. This green network helps to limit future urban expansion, improve urban environmental quality and serve as habitats and migration routes for wildlife. At the neighborhood level, green extensions and connections of riverside greenway, road greenway, parks and vertical greening permeate into the built-up areas. They provide open space close to residential areas and offer places for recreation. This three-level green system constitutes an integrated ecological network for urban sustainable development of Beijing. For future development of Beijing, urban parks, forestry, agriculture, water and infrastructure should be planned and designed in an integrated way. After this greenspace plan is legislated and completely realized, Beijing will develop an interconnected and integrated network of urban greenspaces. It has the prospect of achieving the aim of “Green Olympic City 2008” and the long-term goal of developing Beijing towards an “Eco-City”.     

Gentrification and South African Cities: Towards a research agenda

Whereas South Africa’s cities have generally been understood as a “unique” urban form, many theoretical perspectives and urban processes – such as gentrification – which are often reserved for consideration in cities of advanced capitalist societies, are also of relevance there. In fact, important contributions to these theoretical perspectives can be made by drawing upon the South African urban experiences, while also providing a basis whereby local scholarship can be integrated into international urban debates.     

Natursyns model: A conceptual framework and method for analysing and comparing views of nature

This article presents a conceptual framework and methodology by which stakeholders’ views of nature can be investigated, explained, compared and ‘ideal types’ distilled based on qualitative interviews and, plans, laws and other texts analysed. The aim of such studies is to increase the knowledge about personal, social and cultural aspects of landscape and their relations in general to improve the basis of countryside planning and management in particular. Within the Natursyns model (the Danish word ‘natur’ corresponding to “nature” in English and “syn” implying perceived, imagined, cognized and culturally agreed interpretations) landscape is understood simultaneously as: ‘habitat’, unrealised sense impressions; ‘area’, all the ways in which nature is cognised; and as ‘symbol’, all types of representations of nature and its parts. The use of the model is illustrated; its epistemological foundation, the semiotics and phaneroscopy (phenomenology) of the American philosopher Charles S. Peirce, is described; the content of its fields explained; and benefits and shortcomings discussed.     

The Value of the Sense of Community and Neighbouring

Today, urbanites are less involved in local communities which has resulted in a claim that the significance of local communities and the role of space and neighbourhood layout in the creation of local communities has been exaggerated. Such claims imply that feeling a sense of community among neighbourhood’s residents or an attachment to the community is not a value to the neighbourhood. Community research has developed a few indices for evaluating the sense of community and community attachment, but has not focused on the significance of a sense of community in neighbourhoods. The aim of this paper is to explore and review the significance of the sense of community, community attachment and neighbouring in the context of neighbourhoods. This review suggests that feeling a sense of community, attachment to community and neighbouring relationships can increase the feeling of safety and security, residential satisfaction, community identity, civic participation and mental health and well-being.     

Sustaining creativity in the creative archetype: The case of Austin, Texas

Recently, the popular literature on creative industries and the urban creative landscape has been largely dominated by the work of one scholar, Richard Florida. The popularity of Richard Florida’s work has led to a zealous implementation of his creative class thesis by many city officials, policymakers, and urban planners. Recent studies have investigated the impact of creative city implementation in previously working class and industrial cities, but given Florida’s popularity and influence, it is also necessary to evaluate the sustainability of cities touted as creative success stories by Florida and others. This article examines the case of Austin, Texas, seeking to evaluate Florida’s model city in light of recent empirical research. This research suggests that while Austin has witnessed impressive economic prosperity, the “externalities” or unforeseen challenges associated with creative development are equally evident. Further, this research suggests that previously overlooked socio-cultural challenges (e.g. loss of urban cultural character, sense of detachment, over-commercialization) in Austin threaten to potentially undermine the sustainability of this mode of development.     

A preliminary study on the local cool-island intensity of Taipei city parks

That green-spaces relieve urban heat is well known in urban landscape planning. Scientific information on what kinds of green-spaces best reduce heat, however, is still largely unknown. This is a preliminary study aimed at (1) devising a method to detect and compare the local cool-island intensities of various urban parks; (2) verifying that this local cool-island intensity differs among parks; (3) determining whether this local cool-island intensity is related to park characteristics.Results from air–temperature measurements in and around 61 Taipei city parks showed that urban parks were on average cooler than their surroundings, confirming the term “urban cool-islands.” However, approximately one-fifth of the parks were warmer than their urban surroundings. At noon in summer, parks with ≥50% paved coverage and little tree- and shrub-cover were on average warmer than their surroundings. Large parks were on average cooler than the smaller ones, but this relationship was non-linear.In Taipei, parks differed in their local cool-island intensity and this intensity can be related to park characteristics. Before further details concerning better planning and design approaches to mitigate urban heat-islands can be addressed, a neighborhood-scaled understanding of the urban microclimate is first needed as a basis.     

Energy hierarchy and urban landscape system

The study of ecosystems suggests principles by which the flow of energy generates hierarchies in all systems. From viewpoint of ecological energetics, urban system lies on the highest level of ecosystem hierarchy. The main objective of this paper is to study the effect of energy flows on the hierarchies and spatial organization of urban zonation. This research uses Taipei metropolitan region as the area for the case study. “Emergy” is used as the principal conceptual tool for energy analysis; “transformity” is used to measure the hierarchies of land uses and urban landscape systems. Based on the calculation of the spatial distribution of energy flows, using GIS, the empower density and transformity increase from rural to urban center. In order to delineate zones of different energetics, the 1178 administrative districts of the Taipei metropolitan region are used as units for multivariate classification, in which 19 variables of energy flows are condensed into four factors. The factor scores of each districts are then used as input for cluster analysis and discriminate analysis. As a result, different energy structures, and subsequently, different types and amount of energy flows tend to associate with different intensities of urbanization. The Taipei metropolitan region is classified into six energetic zones: mixed-use urban core; high density urban residential district; service and manufacturing urban district; agricultural district, newly developed suburban district; and natural area. The calculation of transformity and emergy indices further establish the hierarchical order of these zones. The distribution of the six energetic zones, reveals the spatial energetic hierarchies of Taipei metropolitan region. The implication of energetic characteristics to planning practice is also discussed to conclude this research.     

居住区绿地设计——以无锡万科魅力之城为例

城市住区是城市居民生活的第一场所,渡过了居者求其房的初级阶段,人们开始关注居住区的绿地景观和居住环境以无锡万科魅力之城为例,探讨如何设计具有鲜明的可识别性的绿化景观场所,真正使居者拥有强烈的归属感与社区自豪感.     

Greenways, blueways, skyways and other ways to a better London

“ Landscape planners are quick to criticise other professions for single-use planning, but we tend towards the same mistake when planning greenways and urban greenspace.” This proposition is illustrated by the great series of open space plans which was prepared for London between 1929 and 1976. It is then discussed from a theoretical standpoint with reference to Christopher Alexander, the ‘pattern analysis’ approach to landscape planning, and the author's 1991 report to the London Planning Advisory Committee, Towards a Green Strategy for London. The paper concludes that ‘greenway’ is an excellent marketing term, but that product diversification and product differentiation must take place. We need special varieties of greenway for special purposes. Brief Alexander-type patterns are outlined for seven varieties: parkway, blueway, paveway, glazeway, skyway, ecoway and cycleway.     

京津城际高速铁路沿线景观规划的实践及其启示

京津城际高铁沿线景观具有独特的高架形式景观环境特征,通过实施绿化工程,形成了整体的景观环境,并对部分节点进行了重点设计,对天津段实施了绿色长廊建设.其规划的不足之处是:景观系统性缺乏、地域识别性不强、景观融合性较弱.通过以上分析,得到一些启示:我国高铁沿线景观规划应与居住环境、建筑、自然相协调,应充分利用高架铁路的桥下...     

论住宅小区场所精神的体现——以成都某住宅小区为例

本文探讨了如何在住宅小区环境设计中进行丰富的景观营造,合理的空间结构,良好的交通组织,以期实现住宅小区环境与所在区域的自然环境、社会环境相协调,为小区居民创造了交往与平等参与各种活动的条件,体现场所精神,在住宅小区环境设计中引入场所与空间的概念,使小区成为家的延伸。