Manufacturing by combining Selective Laser Melting and Selective Laser Erosion/laser re-melting

This study presents an experimental investigation to improve Selective Laser Melting (SLM) regarding aspects such as surface roughness, density, precision and micro machining capability by employing secondary processes such as Selective Laser Erosion (SLE) and laser re-melting. SLM is a layered additive manufacturing technique for the direct fabrication of functional parts by fusing together metal powder particles. Laser re-melting, applied after each layer or only on the top surfaces, is used to improve the roughness and density while SLE, a subtractive process, is combined with SLM to improve the precision and micro machining capability.     

Thermal effects in laser assisted jet electrochemical machining

The purpose of the laser in laser assisted jet ECM (LAJECM) is to localise machining to specified areas so that precision and the productivity is improved. Temperature is a predominant determinant of this localisation effect and must be carefully monitored to avoid any heat affected zones or spark damage due to electrolyte boiling. This paper investigates the thermal effects in LAJECM on several alloys by temperature distribution modelling and experimental analysis. The laser influence on material micro removal has led to 25 μm deeper cavities with a reflective surface of roughness 20 nm R_a, without any detectable heat affected zone.     

Precision grinding of optical glass with laser micro-structured coarse-grained diamond wheels

This paper presents a series of micro-structured coarse-grained diamond wheels for optical glass surface grinding aiming to improve the grinding performance, especially subsurface damage. The 150 μm grit size, single layer electroplated diamond grinding wheels with different interval micro-groove arrays were manufactured by nanosecond pulsed laser, successfully. The influence of micro-structures on surface roughness and subsurface damage was investigated. Compared with conventional coarse-grained diamond wheel, the subsurface damage depth was reduced effectually from 5 to 1.5 μm, although the better surface roughness was not obtained by the micro-structured coarse-grained diamond wheel. In addition, the surface roughness and subsurface damage depth were both reduced with the decreasing interval of micro-groove arrays.     

不同材料去除模式下激光加热辅助切削氮化硅陶瓷表面粗糙度研究

激光加热辅助切削因其工艺空间大、经济性高、可得到高质量表面成为工程陶瓷等脆硬材料的高效加工方式。通过改变激光功率和切削深度两组单因素试验,研究了激光加热辅助切削氮化硅陶瓷（Si3N4）不同加工状态下表面粗糙度值的变化规律。结果表明:材料被塑性去除时,Ra和Rq值均小于被脆性去除和产生热损伤时得到的值。未产生热损伤时,Ra和Rq值随工件软化程度增大而减小。在塑性去除模式下,轮廓高度幅值曲线更加趋于对称和正态分布,表面轮廓更加精细。     

Ultra-precision machining of Fresnel microstructure on die steel using single crystal diamond tool

With the increasing demand for the replication of structured optical elements such as Fresnel lenses and prism arrays, more attention is being paid to the development of ultra-precision diamond machining technology for the fabrication of die steel molds. However, the machining process would be a catastrophic failure because of rapid and excessive tool wear if a diamond tool is used to machine die steel. In the present paper, a micromachining method for fabricating microstructures on die steel using single crystal diamond tool is presented. The presented technology is based on a thermochemical technique that uses plasma nitriding treatment to suppress the rapid and excessive tool wear in the diamond machining of steel. Experimental findings revealed that severe chemical tool wear, which is the main wear mechanism in the diamond machining of steel, was reduced significantly after plasma nitriding treatment, and a mirror-quality surface with an average surface roughness of 20 nm root-mean-square (RMS) was achieved over a cutting distance of approximately 5.4 km. Furthermore, a Fresnel microstructure with surface roughness RMS better than 40 nm was precisely fabricated on AISI 4140 die steel using single crystal diamond tool.     

Grit Blast Assisted Laser Milling/Grooving of Metallic Alloys

Laser machining and milling of metallic alloys and ceramics have been previously carried out by either direct vaporisation or assist gas ejection of laser-melted materials. For certain metallic materials, due to the high viscosity of the materials in the molten state, it is difficult to achieve a clean cut. Recast and heat affected zones are normally formed. This paper reports a hybrid process combining a grit blasting and laser melting for the milling and grooving of stainless steel, mild steel and titanium alloys. The work shows that up to 100% increase in material removal rate and 15% reduction in the heat affected zone size can be achieved compared with a gas jet assisted laser machining process under the same operating conditions. Surface roughness has been reduced by 60%. The effect of particle injection angle, direction on material removal rate is presented. A critical particle injection angle is established.     

金刚石化学机械抛光研究现状

金刚石由于其独特的性质成为未来科技的重要材料,但较差的表面质量会影响其在高科技领域的应用,因此实现金刚石超精密加工是提高金刚石应用的关键。化学机械抛光(CMP)是集成电路中获得全局平坦化的一项重要工艺,能够实现金刚石的超精密加工。介绍了现有的金刚石加工方法和金刚石化学机械抛光的研究现状,并与其他的加工方法(机械抛光、摩擦化学抛光、热化学抛光等)进行了对比,其他加工方法存在加工后表面损伤严重、加工表面粗糙度无法满足需要等问题。金刚石的化学机械抛光工艺经历了由高温抛光向常温抛光的发展过程,该加工方法设备简单、成本低、抛光后的表面粗糙度(Ra)可以达到亚纳米级别。此外,金刚石的分子动力学模拟(MD)使人们从原子尺度对金刚石抛光过程中纳米粒子的相互作用和抛光机理有了深入了解。虽然金刚石化学机械抛光还存在着许多亟待解决的问题,但是其发展前景依旧十分乐观。     

电解研磨扩孔新技术研究

电解研磨扩孔是在吸收电解磨削、电解珩磨和金刚石类磨具研磨等技术优点的基础上开发的一种能浮动定心的高效、低成本的孔后处理加工技术。对该技术的工艺原理、表面粗糙度的影响因素、加工精度及磨具电极的使用寿命等方面进行了研究分析。试验结果和初步应用表明，该技术能有效去除孔加工后的变质层(如再铸层等)，改善表面粗糙度，降低或消除残余应力，提高表面质量。     

激光干涉技术在粗糙度测量中的应用

在机械加工中,金属物体的表面粗糙程度往往会影响加工零件的许多性能,所以针对粗糙度的检测是非常重要的。粗糙度的测量方法很多,但许多是接触式测量,不够方便快捷,并有可能对工件表面造成一定的损伤。针对非接触式的粗糙度测量方法,利用激光干涉技术对金属表面进行粗糙度测量,搭建一整套检测系统,并利用改进的滤波技术提高粗糙度的检测精度。     

Mechanisms involved in the improvement of Inconel 718 machinability by laser assisted machining (LAM)

The aim of the present research work has been to gain a broader understanding of how or why laser assisted machining (LAM) improves machinability of Inconel 718, a hard-to-machine material of interest in the aeronautic industry. This has been accomplished by, first, running short run tests to determine the laser parameters and configuration for which highest force reductions are obtained and also to determine the effect of cutting parameters (feed, cutting speed and depth of cut) on force reduction. Secondly, long run tests have been performed in order to analyze process variables such as cutting forces, tool wear and surface roughness. Temperatures and hardness have been also measured in order to gain a broader perspective of the process.Experimental results have demonstrated that LAM improves machinability of Inconel 718 since machining forces and final surface roughness are reduced. The novelty reached with the present research work is the identification of three mechanisms associated to the laser heating as the responsible of this machinability improvement: material yield strength reduction, material base hardness reduction (only in precipitation hardened Inconel 718) and elimination of the work hardening generated in previous machining passes. The reduction of the work hardening leads also to a lower notch wear that limits the risk of sudden failure of the cutting tool and thus the wear mode is changed to flank wear, which leads to a controllable tool life and better surface roughness.     

Surface modification of Al–Zn–Mg alloy by combined electrical discharge machining with ball burnish machining

The study investigated the feasibility of modifying the surface of Al–Zn–Mg alloy by a combined process of electric discharge machining (EDM) with ball burnish machining (BBM). A novel process that integrates EDM and BBM is also developed to conduct experiments on an electric discharge machine. Machining parameters of the combined process, including machining polarity, peak current, power supply voltage, and the protruding of ZrO₂, are chosen to determine their effects on material removal rate, surface roughness and the improvement ratio of surface roughness. In addition, the extent to which the combined process affects surface modification is also evaluated by microhardness and corrosion resistance tests. Experimental results indicate that the combined process of EDM with BBM can effectively improve the surface roughness to obtain a fine-finishing and flat surface. The micropores and cracks caused from EDM are eliminated during the process as well. Furthermore, such a process can reinforce and increase the corrosion resistance of the machined surface after machining.     

电解研磨复合加工技术在孔后处理中的应用

电解研磨复合加工方法是把电解加工和研磨加工结合起来，利用中性电解液通以适当的电流，在磨料研磨和电解溶解共同作用下，对零件进行快速、高效的精密加工。把这一加工技术运用于孔后处理中，对该技术的工艺原理、表面粗糙度的影响因素、加工精度及金刚石磨头的使用寿命等方面进行了研究分析。试验结果表明，该技术能有效去除孔加工后的变质层（如再铸层等），降低表面粗糙度值，降低或消除残余应力，提高表面质量。     

Fixed abrasive diamond wire machining—part II: experiment design and results

Experimental results from fixed abrasive diamond wire machining of wood and foam ceramics are presented. Three types of wood—pine, oak, and fir, and three types of foam ceramic—silicon carbide, zirconia, and zirconia toughened alumina, are tested. The research investigates the life of diamond wire and effects of process parameters on the cutting forces, force ratio, and surface roughness. A scanning electron microscope is used to study the worn diamond wire, machined surfaces, and debris. The diamond wire saw is demonstrated to be very effective in machining foam ceramics. The wire life for cutting wood at slow feed rates is low. The short tool life for dry cutting of wood indicates that more research in new fixed abrasive diamond wire and wire saw machining technologies is necessary.     

Improving surface finish in pulsed laser micro polishing using thermocapillary flow

Thermocapillary flows can be generated in pulsed laser micro polishing by using longer melt durations, significantly reducing surface roughness at the expense of creating residual high spatial frequency process features. However, polishing with short melt durations, with no thermocapillary flows, effectively smoothens high spatial frequency surface features. This paper presents a two-pass polishing process in which the first pass takes advantage of thermocapillary flows in significantly reducing the surface roughness, and the second pass removes the residual process features. Experimental results of polishing micro end milled Ti6Al4V surfaces are presented that indicate 72% improvement in average surface roughness.     

Using PCD for machining CGI with a CO2 coolant system

Polycrystalline diamond is widely used as a economic cutting material for machining non-ferrous materials such as aluminum. It is perceived that diamond cannot be used for cutting ferrous materials due to the high affinity of carbon to iron. Nevertheless, under certain conditions it is possible to use diamond materials for cutting ferrous metals. In order to avoid graphitization of the diamond matrix, it is necessary to keep the cutting temperature below the critical level of diamond graphitization. This paper presents the influence of a cryogenic CO₂ coolant strategy on the cutting process using PCD tools for cutting high strength compacted graphite iron (CGI). Investigations show, that tool wear behavior strongly correlates with the cutting speed, the cutting forces, cutting temperatures, and surface roughness of the workpiece. The test results show, that the tool life of PCD for cutting cast iron is dependent on the diamond grain size, the binder material, and the cutting parameters.     

冷等离子体射流中微细电火花加工特性研究

采用晶体管脉冲电源,在氧气辅助氮气等离子体射流、氮氧混合等离子体射流及外部压缩空气辅助氮气等离子体射流等不同冷等离子体介质中进行了微细电火花加工特性的实验研究,以期确定加工过程稳定的工艺条件,达到提高加工效率和加工质量的目的。在氧气辅助氮气等离子体射流实验中发现,随着氧气流量的增加,材料去除速度和表面粗糙度值均有增大趋势;采用压缩空气辅助氮气等离子体射流的电火花加工在表面质量、边缘质量方面均优于氧气辅助氮气等离子体射流加工。     

Combined ultrasonic vibration and chemical mechanical polishing of copper substrates

This paper introduces an ultrasonic, vibration-assisted, chemical mechanical polishing (UV-CMP) method and an ultrasonic, vibration-assisted, traditional diamond disk (UV-TDD) dressing method. A copper substrate is polished by traditional CMP and UV-CMP. UV-CMP combines the functions of traditional CMP and ultrasonic machining (USM) with small-amplitude, high-frequency tool vibration to improve the fabrication process and machining efficiency. The removal rate of the copper substrate, torque force, and polished surface morphology of CMP and UV-CMP are compared. The polishing pad is also dressed by traditional diamond disk (TDD) and UV-TDD. The pad cut rate, torque force, and pad surface profiles of TDD and UV-TDD are also investigated in experiments. Experimental results reveal that UV-TDD can produce twice the pad cut rate and reduce torque force compared to TDD. Consequently, a dressing time reduction by half is expected, and hence, the diamond life is extended. It is found that the removal rate of the copper substrate polished by UV-CMP is increased by approximately 50-90% relative to that of traditional CMP because in UV-CMP, a passive layer on the copper surface, formed by the chemical action of the slurry, will be removed not only by the mechanical action of CMP but also by ultrasonic action. In addition, the surface roughness improves and the torque force reduces dramatically. This result suggests that the combination processes of CMP/USM and TDD/USM are feasible methods for improving polishing and dressing efficiency.     

Increase of process reliability in the micro-machining processes EDM-milling and laser ablation using on-machine sensors

In micro production micro electric discharge machining (μEDM) and laser ablation are two established manufacturing methods. Due to the thermal material removal mechanism there are some challenges to provide the needed process reliability. In both cases it is important to ensure a precise manufacturing process by the correct positioning of the tool, e.g. the laser spot, relative to the work piece and the measurement and elimination of geometrical deviations.Using the EDM-milling process to manufacture small cavities a deviation of the manufactured depth and a waviness of the surface may appear if the compensation of the tool wear does not work correctly. A confocal white-light sensor can be used to measure the surface of the machined cavity after the EDM process. An on-machine system provides the possibility to rework the work piece without unclamping it. Combining these two procedures in an automatic working quality loop the accuracy of the manufactured depth can be improved down to a maximum deviation of less than 2 μm. Regarding the laser ablation process using ultra short pulsed Nd:YAG lasers problems arise if the focal plane is not on the surface of the work piece. Due to the manufacturing in layers occurring deviations in the surface remain until the end of the machining process. In this work an acoustical sensor is used to provide a correctly adjusted focal plane at the beginning of the first manufacturing step. Acoustic emissions are detected during the ablation process. A signal analysis of the airborne sound spectrum emitted by the process enables specific conclusions about the focal position of the laser beam. Based on this correlation an acoustic focus positioning is built up and tested on a ceramic work piece. The focal plane can then be adjusted automatically before the ablation.     

碳纤维/树脂基复合材料铣削表面粗糙度及表面形貌研究

目的研究了CFRP材料铣削加工过程中,部分主要工艺对CFRP材料加工表面质量的影响规律,为工艺参数优化,提高此类零件的表面质量提供依据。方法设计了CFRP材料铣削中的切削参数、刀具结构、加工方法与加工表面粗糙度及表面形貌之间的单因素试验。通过单调改变一个切削参数而其余切削参数不变,得到了工件表面粗糙度和表面形貌随切削参数、刀具结构、加工方法的变化规律。结果当铣削速度增大时,工件的表面粗糙度变化不大,表面微坑缺陷的数量却有所增加,但变小、变浅。当进给速度增大时,工件表面粗糙度呈上升趋势,表面缺陷也随之增加。无涂层多齿刀具铣削后的工件表面粗糙度最大,其次是金刚石涂层多齿刀具铣削的工件,最小的是金刚石涂层交错齿刀具铣削的工件。多齿刀具加工后的表面有较多的微坑缺陷,但普遍深度较浅且面积较小。交错齿刀具对分层缺陷的抑制作用最明显,但在左旋和右旋刀齿交错处容易出现较严重的加工缺陷。与普通机械加工方法相比,超声振动加工方法得到的工件表面质量较好,可以有效减少表面微坑缺陷,改善CFRP铣削加工表面质量。结论 CFRP材料铣削加工时,为了获得较好的加工表面质量,切削参数应选用较高的切削速度和较低的进给速度,切削刀具宜选用多齿带涂层刀具。和普通机械加工方法相比,超声振动铣削加工方法更为有利于获得好的表面质量。     

Efficient and damage-free ultrashort pulsed laser cutting of polymer intraocular lens implants

Ophthalmic intraocular lenses are conventionally machined by diamond tools. A promising alternative approach is contour cutting by ultrashort pulsed laser micromachining. To improve process knowledge, a parametric study of picosecond and femtosecond laser machining of medical grade hydrophilic copolymers and PMMA is carried out. Material removal rates and machining quality with respect to main process parameters are determined. Reasons for chipping and formation of heat affected zones are identified and an optimized process strategy is derived. By choosing a defined pulse overlap, heat accumulation is kept minimal while increasing absorptivity through incubation avoids chipping.