Seismic response of box-type tunnels in soft soil: Experimental and numerical investigation

A series of dynamic centrifuge tests were carried out at the geotechnical centrifuge facility of IFSTTAR in Nantes, to investigate the response of box-type tunnels embedded in dry sand under sinusoidal and seismic excitation, as affected by soil-tunnel relative flexibility and soil-structure interface rugosity. The system under investigation was analyzed by means of full dynamic time history analyses, implementing rigorous finite element models. The numerical models were calibrated on the basis of back analysis of tests, while the numerical predictions were compared with experimental data, in terms of soil and tunnel horizontal acceleration, soil shear strains and tunnel deformations. The validated numerical models were then employed to further investigate several aspects of the system seismic response. Results indicate a rocking deformation mode coupled with the well-known racking distortion of box-type tunnels under seismic shaking. The effect of the soil-tunnel interface characteristics and soil yielding on the racking deformation of the tunnel, the dynamic earth pressures and shear stresses around the tunnel, as well as on dynamic lining forces is also reported. Soil yielding leads to post-shaking, residual, dynamic earth pressures, shear stresses and lining forces, especially in the case of flexible tunnels, while interface characteristics affect the distributions of these response parameters around the perimeter of the tunnel section. The ability of simplified seismic design methods for tunnels to predict the response is finally discussed, by comparing their predictions with the recorded data and the numerical results.     

Seismic performances of dyke on liquefiable soils

Various field investigations of earthquake disaster cases have confirmed that earthquake-induced liquefaction is a main factor causing significant damage to dyke, research on seismic performances of dyke is thus of great importance. In this paper, seismic responses of dyke on liquefiable soils were investigated by means of dynamic centrifuge model tests and three-dimensional (3D) effective stress analysis method which is based on a multiple shear mechanism model and a liquefaction front. For the prototype scale centrifuge tests, sine wave input motions with peak accelerations 0.806 m/s², 1.790 m/s² and 3.133 m/s² of varied amplitudes were adopted to study the seismic performances of dyke on the saturated soil layer foundation with relative density of approximately 30%. Then, corresponding numerical simulations were conducted to investigate the distribution and variations of deformation, acceleration, excess pore-water pressure (EPWP), and behaviors of shear dilatancy in the dyke and the liquefiable soil foundation. Moreover, detailed discussions and comparisons between numerical simulations and centrifuge tests were also presented. It is concluded that the computed results have a good agreement with the measured results by centrifuge tests. The physical and numerical models both indicate that the dyke hosted on liquefiable soils subjected to earthquake motions has exhibited larger settlement and lateral spread: the stronger the motion is, the larger the dyke deformation is. Compared to soils in the deep ground under the dyke and the free field, the EPWP ratio is much smaller in the shallow liquefiable soil beneath the dyke in spite of large deformation produced. For the same overburden depth soil from free site and the liquefiable foundation beneath dyke, the characteristics of effective stress path and stress–strain relations are different. All these results may be of theoretical and practical significance for seismic design of the dyke on liquefiable soils.     

变刚度复合地基桩土荷载分担比研究

以模型试验为基础,对传统复合地基及变刚度复合地基在竖向荷载作用下的力学性状进行分析研究。通过11组模型试验,对改变桩长的单桩、群桩复合地基及变刚度复合地基在竖向荷载作用下的内力及变形进行了量测和记录,试验揭示了桩土相互作用、荷载传递过程、桩土应力比、荷载分担比等规律。试验结果表明,变桩长CFG桩复合地基受力更合理、造价低、更经济。     

液化判别应力折减系数分布特征研究

基于FLAC3D软件对饱和砂土离心机振动台模型试验进行数值标定,以获取合理的分析模型,然后采用数值模拟分析不同地震波和简谐波下模型地基内部应力折减系数rd的分布规律。研究表明,已有经验公式能较好地描述土体未液化时应力折减系数的分布形式,但土体液化后土层剪应力分布与经验公式预测值存在显著差别。地震动作用的作用时间对折减系数也有较大影响,其中,孔隙水压力增长水平和土体软化程度是重要影响因素。而地震动频率对rd的影响则主要与场地卓越频率相关,地震动频率越接近场地卓越频率,rd沿土层深度的变化越剧烈。因此,液化评价中采用Seed-Idriss简化公式估算CSR时,需要综合考虑地震动特征和场地条件对rd分布的影响。     

Effects of Footing Size and Aspect Ratio on the Bearing Capacity of Sand Subjected to Eccentric Loading

The current practice of estimating bearing capacity usually employs the conventional bearing capacity formula originally developed for strip footings under vertical central loading. In order to account for the effect of footing shape and eccentricity and inclination of loads, correction factors are introduced in the formula, which are derived based on a number of small-scale model test observations.This paper describes research on the bearing capacity of rectangular footings on sand subjected to vertical eccentric loading. Two aspects, namely the effects of footing size and of footing shape on the bearing capacity and deformation characteristics, are focused on. A series of loading tests was conducted in a centrifuge on rectangular footings with aspect ratios from 1 to 5, at two different centrifugal accelerations. In addition, finite element analyses were performed in which factors influencing the angle of shear resistance including stress level dependency, anisotropy and coefficient of intermediate principal stress, were taken into account.It was found that the shape factor of footing apparently increased with increasing footing width. This indicates that the shape factor used in the current practice underestimates bearing capacity of footings. This was also the case for failure locus in the M/B-V (moment-vertical) load plane. Normalized failure locus for wider footings with a smaller aspect ratio is considerably larger than that reported in the literature. The stress level dependency of the angle of shear resistance appeared to be responsible for the scale effects of footings on the failure locus.     

Centrifuge modeling of geotextile-reinforced slopes subjected to differential settlements

Today, geosynthetic-reinforced soil structures are widely used to support bridge abutments and approach roads in place of traditional pile supports and techniques. In such situations, foundation conditions have been shown to adversely affect the stability and deformation behaviour of overlying geosynthetic-reinforced slopes and walls. This paper addresses the response of geotextile-reinforced slopes subjected to differential settlements in a geotechnical centrifuge. Centrifuge model tests were carried out on model geotextile-reinforced sand slopes with two different types of reinforcement. A wrap-around technique was used to represent a flexible facing. In order to initiate failure in the reinforcement layers, the ratio of length of reinforcement to height of the slope was maintained as 0.85. One of the objectives of this paper is to present about a special device developed for inducing differential settlements during centrifuge test at 40g for a reinforced soil structure. A digital image analysis technique was employed to arrive at displacement vectors of markers glued to the reinforcement layers. The displacements were used to compute and analyze the strain distribution along the reinforcement layers during different settlement stages. Results of the centrifuge test indicate that even after inducing a differential settlement equivalent to 1.0 m in prototype dimensions, the geotextile-reinforced soil structure with a flexible facing was not found to experience a collapse failure. Analysis of geotextile strain results shows that the location of the maximum peak reinforcement strain occurs along the bottom-most reinforcement layer at the onset of differential settlements, at the point directly below the crest of the slope.     

Effect of reinforcement form on the bearing capacity of square footings on sand

This paper presents the results of laboratory model loading tests and numerical studies carried out on square footings supported on geosynthetic reinforced sand beds. The relative performance of different forms of geosynthetic reinforcement (i.e. geocell, planar layers and randomly distributed mesh elements) in foundation beds is compared; using same quantity of reinforcement in each test. A biaxial geogrid and a geonet are used for reinforcing the sand beds. Geonet is used in two forms of reinforcement, viz. planar layers and geocell, while the biaxial geogrid was used in three forms of reinforcement, viz. planar layers, geocell and randomly distributed mesh elements. Laboratory load tests on unreinforced and reinforced footings are simulated in a numerical model and the results are analyzed to understand the distribution of displacements and stresses below the footing better. Both the experimental and numerical studies demonstrated that the geocell is the most advantageous form of soil reinforcement technique of those investigated, provided there is no rupture of the material during loading. Geogrid used in the form of randomly distributed mesh elements is found to be inferior to the other two forms. Some significant observations on the difference in reinforcement mechanism for different forms of reinforcement are presented in this paper.     

附加应力法计算刚性桩复合地基路基沉降

部分刚性桩复合地基路基实际沉降超过计算沉降的重要原因之一是现有沉降计算方法存在严重缺陷。在分析桩土沉降关系和桩土作用的基础上,提出了路堤下刚性桩复合地基沉降计算新方法——附加应力法。首先根据桩土作用计算桩土附加应力,然后采用分层总和法计算复合地基沉降。经工程实例验证后,利用附加应力法研究了桩长、桩间距、扩底、桩帽等因素对路基沉降的影响,并与现行方法计算的沉降进行对比。分析表明:附加应力法可以考虑单桩竖向承载力、桩帽转移荷载能力、桩土相互作用等因素的影响,计算沉降与实测沉降接近;利用桩帽将路堤大部分荷载转移到桩顶可以有效减小路基沉降;扩底比桩长加大更经济合理;按"强桩、大间距、大桩帽"原则设计的复合地基比密桩复合地基更经济合理。     

Centrifuge model test on dynamic behavior of group-pile foundation With inclined piles and its numerical simulation

In this paper, dynamic behavior of a grouppile foundation with inclined piles in loose sand has been investigated with centrifuge model tests. The test results are also simulated with elastoplastic dynamic finite element method, in which, not only sectional force of piles, stress of ground, but also deformation of piles are calculated using a three-dimensional elastoplastic dynamic finite element analysis (Code name: DGPILE-3D). The numerical analyses are conducted with a full system in which a superstructure, a pile foundation and surrounding ground are considered together so that interaction between pile foundation and soils can be properly simulated because the nonlinearities of both the pile and the ground are described with suitable constitutive models. Different types of piles, vertical pile or inclined pile, are considered in order to verify the different characteristics of a group pile foundation with inclined piles. The validity of the calculation is verified by the model tests.     

移动交通荷载下公路软土地基的沉降计算

交通荷载是一种移动的重复作用荷载,在地基中产生的附加动应力的路径和大小与移动速度密切相关,目前的简化算法中忽略了移动速度的影响。通过数值积分算法得到了交通荷载在地基中引起的附加动应力,探讨了移动荷载下地基中应力路径特点及其与荷载移动速度的关系,提出在拟静力计算的地基附加应力结果上乘以荷载速度效应的放大系数的简化近似方法,给出了便于工程应用的放大系数的实用图表。根据移动荷载在地基中产生的附加动应力路径的特点,提出了一个适用于循环心形应力路径的饱和软土残余变形的经验模型,通过对已有试验成果的模拟,初步验证了所提模型的有效性。在此基础上,建议了一种考虑荷载移动速度影响的路基沉降实用算法。以Saga机场高速公路的沉降计算为例,初步探讨了不同车速比下的公路沉降发展的特点和规律。     

Interaction between surface structures and tunnelling in sand: Centrifuge and computational modelling

Tunnelling in urban areas requires a careful estimation of the consequence of soil settlements on existing buildings. In this paper the interaction between the excavation of a tunnel in sand and surface structures is investigated. A two dimensional finite element model is presented and validated through comparison with centrifuge test results, both with and without structures. The model is then used to perform a sensitivity study on the effect of building weight on soil movements and structural deformations. The results of the validation indicate that assuming a no-tension interface between the soil and the structure is essential to capture the soil–structure interaction that was experimentally observed. The parametric analyses show that the relation between the building stiffness and the tunnelling-induced deformations depends on the building weight.     

高心墙堆石坝地震反应复合模型研究

高土石坝抗震分析得到国内外学者的极大关注。采用土工离心机振动台模型试验和动力数值模拟技术相结合的复合模型方法 来 研究高心墙堆石坝地震反应特性。 首先对不等比尺的离心模型试验结果进行数值模拟,以验证数值计算模型和确定计算参数,然后用数值方法对离心模型试验结果进行拓展和外延,推广到等比尺和原型情况。对比分析了 高心墙堆石坝地震加速度放大系数、地震残余变形、防渗墙动应力和破坏模式。计算值与试验值变化规律一致, 表明复合 模型是研究高心墙堆石坝地震反应特性一种行之有效的方法,（ 40 ～ 50 ） g 离心机振动台模型试验基本上可以反映高土石坝的地震反应特性。     

Influence of geotextile arrangement on seismic performance of mid-rise buildings subjected to MCE shaking

Geotextile layers make it possible to construct mid-rise buildings sitting on shallow foundations in unfavourable soil conditions; this study investigates how the arrangement of geotextiles affects the seismic performance of mid-rise buildings under Maximum Considered Earthquake (MCE) shaking. The geotextile arrangement considered here includes the stiffness (5000?kN/m – 12000?kN/m), the length with respect to width of the foundation (B) (1B – 4B), the number of geotextile layers (1 – 7 layers), and their spacing (250?mm – 1000?mm). FLAC3D is used for the numerical simulation and to carry out nonlinear dynamic analysis in the time domain, and an inelastic constitutive model is used to simulate the behaviour of the structure and the geotextile layers under seismic loads. Variations in the shear modulus of soil and the corresponding damping ratio with cyclic shear strain are considered using a hysteretic damping algorithm to model the reasonable dissipation of energy in the soil. The interface between the foundation and ground surface, including the material and geometrical nonlinearities, are used to capture any possible slide and uplift in the foundations. The results are presented with regard to the geotextile arrangement considered, and include the tensile force mobilised in the geotextile layers, the response spectra at the bedrock and ground surface, the shear force developed in the structure, the maximum rocking angle of the foundation, permanent foundation settlement, maximum lateral displacement and the maximum and residual inter-storey drifts. The results show that the geotextile layers close to the edges of the foundation sustained most of the stress induced by foundation rocking, and the geotextile arrangement has a significant influence on the seismic response of mid-rise buildings. Thus, to satisfy the seismic performance of buildings and to optimise the design of foundations reinforced with geotextiles, the stiffness, length, number and spacing of the geotextile layers should be designed with great care.     

Centrifuge model test on dynamic behavior of group-pile foundation with inclined piles and its numerical simulation

In this paper, dynamic behavior of a group-pile foundation with inclined piles in loose sand has been investigated with centrifuge model tests. The test results are also simulated with elastoplastic dynamic finite element method, in which, not only sectional force of piles, stress of ground, but also deformation of piles are calculated using a three-dimensional elastoplastic dynamic finite element analysis (Code name: DGPILE-3D). The numerical analyses are conducted with a full system in which a superstructure, a pile foundation and surrounding ground are considered together so that interaction between pile foundation and soils can be properly simulated because the nonlinearities of both the pile and the ground are described with suitable constitutive models. Different types of piles, vertical pile or inclined pile, are considered in order to verify the different characteristics of a group pile foundation with inclined piles. The validity of the calculation is verified by the model tests.     

夯实水泥土桩在砂层中塌孔的处理

针对夯实水泥土桩复合地基的承载机理,根据水泥土桩进入砂层的长度不同,采用不同施工方法解决了夯实水泥土桩在砂层中塌孔问题,复合地基承载力满足了设计要求,取得了良好的经济效益。     

Combined loading of strip footings on sand-over-clay with layers of varying extents

This study describes the numerical analyses performed to investigate the bearing capacity of strip footings placed on granular (frictional) material overlying soft clay subjected to combined vertical-horizontal and vertical-moment loading. A plane-strain finite element limit analysis is used to estimate the limiting load combinations for two layer soil geometries where the top layer is either fully extended in the horizontal direction or it is of limited horizontal extent, representative of rock or gravel berms commonly used in offshore practice.Bearing capacity envelopes for combined vertical, horizontal and/or moment loading are well-documented in the literature for cases of footings resting on single sand or clay soil. For two-layer sand-over-clay soil with a horizontally extensive top layer, the vertical-horizontal and vertical-moment envelopes initially coincide with the envelope for a single sand layer at low vertical loads, but show an abrupt reduction in the horizontal or moment capacity as the vertical load increases beyond a certain critical vertical load. The critical vertical load is found to vary as a function of the thickness and the lateral extent of the upper layer. Relationships are presented to enable the vertical-horizontal and vertical-moment envelopes to be estimated based on the problem geometry and material properties.The findings in this study provide insight into the response of subsea foundations placed on rock or gravel of limited extent overlying a clay seabed as well as the general response of shallow foundations on two-layer profiles.     

CFG桩复合地基施工过程监测与数值分析

结合高速铁路某试验段工程,开展CFG桩+垫层处理地基试验。实测复合地基沉降变形、桩顶应力、桩间土应力;分析路基沉降变形、桩土应力比随填筑高度的变化规律;利用FLAC-3D建立路堤荷载下CFG桩复合地基三维参数化数值计算模型,将现场实测数据与数值计算结果进行对比,分析研究路堤荷载作用下CFG桩复合地基的工作性状。研究成果有助于高速铁路复合地基沉降控制、承载特性和应力传递机理的研究。     

Modified ultimate bearing capacity formula of strip footing on sandy soils considering strength non-linearity depending on stress level

Most of the contemporary ultimate bearing capacity (UBC) formulas assume a linear yield function in shear stress-normal stress space. However, experimental investigations have corroborated the non-linearity in the failure envelopes of sandy soils. This study focused on the assessment of the stress level effect on the UBC of surface strip footings ascribed to the soil unit weight (γ), footing size (B), and uniform surcharge load (q). The rigid plastic finite element method (RPFEM) was employed for the analysis. The analysis method was validated against the centrifuge test results from the published references in the case of various sandy soils with different relative densities. The RPFEM, using the mean confining stress dependence property of Toyoura sand, is utilized in non-linear finite element analysis of model sandy soil. The normalized ground failure domains in the case of the non-linear shear strength model are gleaned smaller than those in the case of the linear shear strength one. The numerical results are compared with the guidelines of the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) and the Japan Road Association (JRA). The modification coefficients are ascertained for the frictional bearing capacity factor (N_γ) and surcharge bearing capacity factor (N_q), and a modified UBC formula is proposed. The performance of the proposed UBC formula is examined against the analysis results and various prevailing UBC guidelines.     

夯实水泥土桩复合地基垫层效应研究

基于试验结果,分析垫层刚度对复合地基中桩顶及桩间土表面应力发挥进程的影响,指出对于土质相对较好的地基中应用夯实水泥土桩复合地基,会因垫层刚度的不同造成复合地基破坏模式的改变,从而影响复合地基的承载力的大小。因此,天然地基土相对较好的地基土质条件下,为防止桩身过早压坏,导致p–s曲线产生陡降,合适的垫层刚度非常重要。载荷板宽度不同会造成垫层刚度的差异,采用载荷试验确定复合地基承载力要考虑这种垫层刚度差异的影响。     

用离心模型研究港区软基变形特性

利用目前国内土工离心机中最大的内净空尺寸模型箱和 4 0 0gt大型离心机进行了港区软弱地基离心模型试验研究 ,模拟了堆场 (与码头连接段 )及下卧层在厚达 2 8m吹填粉细砂和 5 5kN m2 使用荷载作用下的沉降量、沉降差及沉降量与时间的关系 ,并测试吹填砂本身的压缩沉降量及不同深度的密实度、压缩模量和承载力变化等。试验结果表明 ,大型离心机模型试验是研究上述工程问题的有效手段 ,所得结论对合理确定地基处理方案、加固处理深度和加固程度以及吹填砂所需方量具有参考价值和指导意义。