Influence of thermoelectric junctions on the electrical signals generated by the tool–workpiece thermocouple system in machining

This work investigates the influence of the electrical circuits on TMF (total thermoelectromotive force) response signals captured from the rotating workpiece generated by the tool–workpiece thermocouple system in turning process considering four different thermoelectrical circuits – Ec namely: C₁ – bronze pin, C₂ – aluminum pin, C₃ – graphite brush and C₄ – liquid mercury contact. The tests were carried out under different cutting conditions. A multifactorial analysis of variance was performed using the 2^k factorial design, always considering the C₄ as the lower level. In addition, a single factor analysis of variance was performed, keeping the cutting speed, Vc, the feed rate, f, the depth of cut, doc, and the lubri-coolant system, Lub, constants while varying the Ec in order to validate the results found with the factorial design. The results indicated that there was no statistical significant difference in the TMF responses of the tool–workpiece thermocouples C₁ and C₄ as well as C₂ and C₄. However, when comparing the TMF generated by C₃ and C₄ a significant difference was detected, indicating that graphite brushes is not recommended for such application, while the bronze and aluminum pins can be thought as an advantageous substitute for the laborious liquid mercury system.     

Effect of Cu Content on the Structure,and Performance of Substoichiometric Cr–N Coatings

Cu–Cr–N coatings with Cu contents between 3 and 65 at.%, Cu/Cr ratios in the 0.04–4.5 range and 21–27 at.% N, synthesized by twin electron-beam Physical Vapor Deposition at 450 °C, were investigated and compared against substoichiometric Cr–N reference samples. The main objective of this study is to study the influence of Cu on the structure, and the subsequent effects on the mechanical properties, room (22 °C) and high temperature (500 and 840 °C) tribological performance of Cu–Cr–N coatings. Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, glancing angle X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, in combination with nanoindentation mechanical property measurements and laboratory-controlled ball-on-disc sliding experiments, it is shown that Cu–Cr–N coatings with low Cu content (3 at.%) possess sufficient wear resistance for high-temperature demanding tribological applications. The lubricious effect of oxide formation at high temperatures is also evaluated.     

Frequency–spectrum characteristics of force in end milling with tool wear and eccentricity

The effects of chip load, tool wear, and tool eccentricity on milling force are similar; in order to distinguish them from each other, the spectral characteristics of milling force for four flute end mills was studied. With simplified milling force model, the calculation expression of instantaneous milling force under tool eccentricity was derived based on the 2D geometry of tool cutting into workpiece. Using simulation methods, the amplitude spectra of milling forces under neither wear nor eccentricity, only eccentricity, both wear and eccentricity, and the every phase spectrum of force caused only by wear of one tooth were analyzed. The analysis results showed that the basic and third harmonic amplitudes of spindle frequency were linear only with eccentric distance, the fourth harmonic amplitude was linear only with feed, the second harmonic component was in relationship only with tool wear, and harmonics with same frequency caused by wear of different teeth were in phase or out of phase. Then corresponding milling experiments were done, the relations between experimental harmonic amplitudes of force and milling parameters were analyzed, and were found being in good agreement with above simulation results. These indicate that amplitudes of these harmonics could be taken as indices in recognizing eccentricity, wear, and chip load, respectively, and their variations contain in-process information of tool wear. This study proposes a new idea of identifying tool eccentricity and wear with force itself.     

The edge–torus tangency problem in multipoint machining of triangulated surface models

This paper presents a method for computing the tangency between an edge and a torus. This tangency is used in positioning a toroidal tool on an edge that is part of a triangulated surface. This method is easier to implement and faster to execute than earlier solutions to this problem. The method was tested on a triangulated surface modeling a pyramid and on a triangulated tensor product Bézier patch.     

Artificial neural network model in surface modification by EDM using tungsten–copper powder metallurgy sintered electrodes

Electro-discharge machining (EDM) is a widely accepted nontraditional machining process used mostly for machining materials difficult to machine by conventional shearing process. Surface modification by powder metallurgy sintered tools is an uncommon aspect of EDM. Of late, it is being explored by many researchers. In the present paper, attempts have been made to model the surface modification phenomenon by EDM with artificial neural networks. Two output measures, material transfer rate and average layer thickness, have been correlated with different process parameters and presented in the form of plots. The predicted results are matching well with the experimental results.     

Effect of electrode material in wire electro discharge machining characteristics of Ti50Ni50−xCux shape memory alloy

TiNiCu alloy belongs to new class of shape memory alloy (SMA), which exhibits superior properties like shape memory effect, super elasticity and reversible martensitic transformation phase and thus find broad applications in actuators, micro tools and stents in biomedical components. Even though, SMA demonstrates outstanding property profile, traditional machining of SMAs is fairly complex and hence non-traditional machining like wire electric discharge machining (WEDM) has been performed. Hence, there is a need to investigate the WEDM performance characteristics of shape memory alloys due to excellent property profile and potential applications. In the present investigation, various machining characteristics like material removal rate (MRR), surface roughness, surface topography and metallographic changes have been studied and the influence of wire material on TiNiCu alloy machining characteristics has also been evaluated through ANOVA. Ti₅₀Ni_50−xCu_{x=10, 20} was prepared by vacuum arc melting process. The proposed alloy as-cast material exhibits austenite property (B2 phase) and having higher hardness when compared to TiNi alloy. The investigation on WEDM of Ti₅₀Ni_50−xCu_x alloy reveals that the machining parameters such as servo voltage, pulse on time and pulse off time are the most significant parameters affecting MRR as well as surface roughness using both brass and zinc coated brass wires. However, machining with zinc coated brass wire yields reduced surface roughness and better MRR and also produces less surface defects on the machined surface of Ti₅₀Ni_50−xCu_x alloys.     

Some study on electrical discharge machining of ({WC+TiC+TaC/NbC}–Co) cemented carbide

Electrical discharge machining process is a potential method of shaping ({WC+TiC+TaC/NbC}–Co) cemented carbide known for its superior hardness and compressive strength at high temperature and resistance to diffusion wear. Yet, detailed study on electrical discharge machining of this material is lacking in the literature. In the present investigation, therefore, mathematical models are developed for material removal rate, wear ratio, and surface roughness in electrical discharge machining of this cemented carbide using the procedure of statistical design of experiments. Current setting, pulse on time, and pulse off time are chosen as input parameters. Based on available machine settings, a face-centered central composite design is selected for meaningful experimentations. The procedure may be extended to develop a data bank for such type of materials. Further, to reveal the attributes behind the removal of material from the work-piece surface, scanning electron micrographs are studied. It appears that sufficient superheating of work-piece material and subsurface boiling is essential for efficient material removal and that formation of pock marks due to burst of blisters and associated crack formation may be controlled by choosing a proper dielectric.     

Effect of electrical current on tribological behavior of copper-impregnated metallized carbon against a Cu–Cr–Zr alloy

A block-on-slip ring-type wear tester was used to investigate the tribological behavior of copper-impregnated metallized carbon against a Cu–Cr–Zr alloy under 2 to 6 N applied load and 0 to 20 A electrical current. The sliding speed was maintained at 25 km/h. The wear loss of copper-impregnated metallized carbon increased with greater electrical current. Under a certain applied load, the wear loss with electrical current was minimized. The tribo-layer had an apparent effect on the friction coefficient. The wear mechanisms were complex, consisting of adhesive wear, abrasive wear and arc erosion.     

Microstructural evolvement and formation of selective laser melting W–Ni–Cu composite powder

W–Ni–Cu alloy (90 wt% W, 7.5 wt% Ni, and 2.5 wt% Cu) parts were successfully fabricated via selective laser melting method. Phases, microstructure, compositions, and laser forming parameters of laser melted samples were investigated. It was found that the W–Ni–Cu powder system was based on the mechanism of liquid solidification. This process was realized through full melting of W, Ni, and Cu particles under high laser energy input. However, using relatively lower energy input, particle bonding was realized through liquid phase sintering with complete melting of Ni–Cu acting as binder and nonmelting of W acting as structure. Due to the Ni–Cu solid solution phase that appeared in a wide range from 1,084 to 1,455 °C, a coherent matrix interface can be observed after solidification. The microhardness of laser-fabricated specimens varied with different powder layer thicknesses, resulting from the laser-treated condition and ability of trapped air in the loose powder bed to escape. The metallurgical mechanisms were also addressed.     

Microstructural and abrasive characteristics of high carbon Fe–Cr–C hardfacing alloy

A series of high carbon Fe–Cr–C hardfacing alloys were produced by gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW). Chromium and graphite alloy fillers were used to deposit hardfacing alloys on ASTM A36 steel substrates. Depending on the four different graphite additions in these alloy fillers, this research produced hypereutectic microstructures of Fe–Cr phase and (Cr,Fe)₇C₃ carbides on hard-facing alloys. The microstructural results indicated that primary (Cr,Fe)₇C₃ carbides and eutectic colonies of [Cr–Fe+(Cr,Fe)₇C₃] existed in hardfacing alloys. With increasing the C contents of the hardfacing alloys, the fraction of primary (Cr,Fe)₇C₃ carbides increased and their size decreased. The hardness of hardfacing alloys increased with fraction of primary (Cr.Fe)₇C₃ carbides. Regarding the abrasive characteristics, the wear resistance of hardfacing alloys were related to the fraction of primary (Cr,Fe)₇C₃ carbides. The wear mechanism was also dominated by the fraction of primary (Cr,Fe)₇C₃ carbides. Fewer primary carbides resulted in continuous scratches worn on the surface of hardfacing alloy. In addition, the formation of craters resulted from the fracture of carbides. However, the scratches became discontinuous with increasing fraction of the carbides. More primary carbides can effectively prevent the eutectic colonies from the damage of abrasive particles.     

Rate of the tribooxidative and diffusional wear of a tool’s contact surfaces in the machining of metals

The tribooxidative and diffusional fluxes of tool material into the blank are compared. This permits the identification of the dominant type of wear in machining, for different technological conditions.     

Kinetics of formation of boundary lubricating film in zone of facing–tool contact under metal cutting

Tribological processes that occur in the zone of the facing–tool contact can be satisfactorily described using a three-zone model in which zones of adhesion, seizure, and friction are distinguished. An expression that relates the coefficient of friction under cutting to the distribution of the zones of friction over the surface of contact has been obtained, causes for the origination of the zone of adhesion have been analyzed, and the shear strength of boundary films has been estimated. A model that describes the kinetics of the formation of a boundary lubricating film in the zone of friction with account for the dimensions and the shape of surfactant molecules, as well as the concentration of surfactants, has been developed. The results of the calculations have shown good agreement with the experimental data.     

Investigations of flank wear, cutting force, and surface roughness in the machining of Al-6061�CTiB2 in situ metal matrix composites produced by flux-assisted synthesis

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation on the machinability of in situ Al-6061?CTiB₂ metal matrix composite (MMC) prepared by flux-assisted synthesis. These composites were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and micro-hardness analysis. The influence of reinforcement ratio of 0, 3, 6, and 9?wt.% of TiB₂ on machinability was examined. The effect of machinability parameters such as cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut on flank wear, cutting force and surface roughness were analyzed during turning operations. From the test results, we observe that higher TiB₂ reinforcement ratio produces higher tool wear, surface roughness and minimizes the cutting forces. When machining the in situ MMC with high speed causes rapid tool wear due to generation of high temperature in the machining interface. The rate of flank wear, cutting force, and surface roughness are high when machining with a higher depth of cut. An increase in feed rate increases the flank wear, cutting force and surface roughness.     

The influence of Cu addition on precipitation in Fe–Cr–Ni–Al–(Cu) model alloys

Precipitation in Fe–Cr–Ni–Al–(Cu) model alloys was investigated after ageing for 0.25, 3, 10 and 100 h at 798 K. Characterization of nanoscale precipitates was performed using three-dimensional atom probe microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The precipitates are found to be enriched in Ni and Al (Cu) and depleted in Fe and Cr. After 0.25 h of ageing the number density of precipitates is ∼8×10²⁴ m⁻³, their volume fraction is about 15.5% and they are near-spherical with an average diameter of about 2–3 nm. During further ageing the precipitates in the both alloys grow, but the coarsening behaviour is different for both alloys. The precipitates of the Cu-free alloy grow much faster compared with the Cu-containing alloy and their density decreases. Precipitates in Cu-free alloy change to plate shaped even after 10 h of ageing, whereas those of Cu-containing alloy remain spherical up to 10 h of ageing. The influence of Cu addition on precipitation in these model alloys is discussed with respect to the different coarsening mechanisms.     

Influence of rigid and frictional kinematic linkages in tool–workpiece contact on the uniformity of tool wear

The motion of the machined part over the tool’s working surface is considered in raster finishing with frictional kinematic linkage. The relative trajectories of the part and tool are analyzed. In forward movement of the lap, rigid kinematic linkage in the part–tool contact is recommended.