When rewards reflect competence: A qualification of the overjustification effect.

Suggests that it is not contingency per se, but whether the rewards provide information about the Ss' competence, that determines how Ss will react to rewards. Results from 118 female university students reveal that when rewards did not indicate level of ability, higher rewards led to less intrinsic motivation, regardless of whether these rewards were contingent. But when the level of reward reflected ability (higher rewards were supposedly given for greater skill), higher rewards led to greater intrinsic motivation. This latter result is similar to findings in the control condition in which Ss were not given any rewards but were given competency information. Results are discussed in terms of their application to educational and business settings where rewards are often based on ability. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The overjustification effect: A developmental test of self-perception interpretations.

Examined the self-perception explanations of the overjustification effect and their underlying assumptions about cognitive structures based on the operation of multiple-sufficient-causal schemata (MSCS). Two studies were carried out that initially identified the Ss as belonging to the additive, transitional, or discounting stage of MSCS according to the procedure of M. C. Smith (see record 1974-22388-001). A total of 94 5-, 8-, and 11-yr-old schoolchildren were selected as Ss. Half of the Ss were given a tangible reward for an interesting task in the usual overjustification paradigm. The results of both studies indicate that the rewarded groups showed a decline in intrinsic interest that was independent of the Ss' level of functioning on the schema. The author examines objections to the present research strategy and assesses the educational implications of the outcomes. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect and the overjustification effect.

Studied the role of affect as a mediator of the overjustification effect and proposed that negative affect has a critical detrimental influence on intrinsic motivation, either as a reaction derived from self-perception and evaluation processes or as a factor that acts independently of these cognitive activities. Two studies, with 180 undergraduates, used the typical overjustification paradigm to test these hypotheses. In Exp I, the overjustification effect was successfully replicated for both behavioral and self-report measures of intrinsic motivation. It is important that the negative affect paralleled these results and was greatest in those conditions in which intrinsic motivation was predicted and found to be low (e.g., expected reward). In Exp II, affect was directly manipulated, independently of the cognitive manipulations. Results show that the induced positive affect erased the decrease in intrinsic motivation that was observed in Exp I. It is suggested that what determines the decrease in intrinsic interest in any activity is, in part, the amount of negative affect that becomes associated with the activity. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Competence and the overjustification effect: A developmental study.

Examined the conditions under which information regarding competence would mitigate the negative side effects of rewards on the intrinsic interest of preschool and middle elementary school children. 144 nursery school and 3rd–5th graders engaging in a task of high initial interest anticipated a reward made contingent either upon meeting a standard based on absolute performance level or upon task engagement alone, or they were not rewarded. In addition, Ss were provided with direct information concerning competence presented in terms of social comparison. Results indicate that the preschool children were primarily affected by information about meeting the absolute standard but not the social comparison information. That is, the overjustification effect did not occur when attaining a reward was made contingent on meeting an absolute standard of performance. Social comparison information superseded the effect of the contingency of the reward on subsequent interest in the target task for the older children. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Linking perceived unfairness to physical health: The perceived unfairness model.

Can perceiving unfairness influence physical health? To address this question the authors propose the Perceived Unfairness Model, synthesized from psychological and epidemiological research. The model starts from the premise that perceiving unfairness, directed at beings to which the perceiver is emotionally attached, activates a cascade of psychological and physical processes. This cascade may be experienced by low or high status group members, and by the target or observer of the perceived unfairness. With repeated episodes, the effects of perceiving unfairness may accumulate and compromise physical health. Whether perceiving unfairness is potentially toxic or benign is a function of two key components of social location: identity relevance and helplessness to redress the unfairness. The authors conclude by discussing directions for developing the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

When timeliness matters: The effect of status on reactions to perceived time delay within distributed collaboration.

This research examines the interactive effects of status and perceived time delay on acceptance of partner knowledge contributions within a distributive collaboration work environment. Results across 2 studies suggest that within distributed collaboration, time delays attributed to low-status partners had a significantly more harmful effect on influence acceptance than time delay attributed to high-status partners. This was so, despite the fact that partners' actual behavior was held constant across experimental conditions. In addition, results indicate that judgments of partner competence significantly mediated the interactive effects of perceived time delay and partner status on acceptance of partner influence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of stimulus range on perceived contrast: Evidence for contrast gain control.

Investigated whether the stimulus range affected the perceived contrast of vertical gratings whose spatial frequencies were either 1 or 4 cycles/deg to determine if adjustive processes apply to the contrast sensitivity of spatial frequency channels in a vision task. Nine Ss judged the perceived contrasts of 1 and 4 cycle/deg gratings intermixed within a session. Four different conditions were created by combining either a set of low-contrast or high-contrast gratings at 1 frequency with a broad range of contrasts at the other frequency. When the broad-range set was at 1 cycle/deg, contrast-matches across spatial frequencies were unaffected by changing the range of the 4-cycle/deg gratings. When the broad-range set was 4 cycles/deg, contrast matches were changed by changing the range of the 1 cycle/deg gratings. This asymmetry in the range effect was shown to be consistent with the characteristics of the 2 channels' receptive-field profiles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychological effects of insufficient rewards.

The "absence of reward or the existence of inadequate reward produces certain specific consequences which can account for a variety of phenomena which are difficult to deal with if we use our usual conceptions of the role of reward." The "specific analysis of the psychological effects of insufficient rewards" is discussed in the context of a theory of dissonance and the reduction of dissonance. Several research studies are summarized. "It seems clear that the inclination to engage in behavior after extrinsic rewards are removed is not so much a function of past rewards themselves. Rather, and paradoxically, such persistence in behavior is increased by a history of nonrewards or inadequate rewards." From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2CJ01F. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement American style: The rewards and costs of individualism.

Suggests that the US is a success-oriented society whose attitudes toward achievement can be traced to the Protestant heritage and its emphasis on individualism and the work ethic. Although they are implied to have universal significance, it is contended that contemporary theories of achievement and achievement motivation are rooted in individualism and may have validity primarily for American and similar cultures. Concerns about the erosion of the work ethic and the destructive aspects of individualism are discussed. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Uncertainty management: The influence of uncertainty salience on reactions to perceived procedural fairness.

On the basis of fairness heuristic theory, it is argued in this article that people especially need fairness when they are reminded about aspects of their lives that make them uncertain. It is therefore proposed that thinking about uncertainty should make fairness a more important issue to people. The findings of 3 experiments support this line of reasoning: Asking (vs. not asking) participants 2 questions that solicited their thoughts and feelings of being uncertain led to stronger effects of perceived procedural fairness on participants' affective reactions toward the way they were treated. It is argued that these findings suggest that fairness matters to people especially when they are trying to deal with things that make them uncertain. An implication of the current findings therefore may be that fairness is important to people because it gives them an opportunity to manage uncertain aspects of their lives. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Runway length and the failure of expected rewards: The OEE.

Hypothesized that the peak in the nonmonotone relation between resistance to extinction, and amount of continuously rewarded training in a runway is a function of the length of the runway, shifting to the right as length decreases. Each of 8 groups of 10 male hooded rats in a 2 * 4 factorial design were run in a 2-or 8-ft runway and received 30, 50, 70, or 90 continuously rewarded trials before extinction. Results supported the hypothesis. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exposure to rewards and the delay of gratification.

Gave 111 children aged 6, 7, 8, and 9 yrs old a choice between an immediate reward and a larger, delayed reward. Half of the Ss in each age group saw the rewards before choosing, while the other half did not. Exposure to the rewards led to more choices of delayed reward for 7 yr olds. The 6 yr olds predominantly chose immediate rewards regardless of exposure, while the 8 and 9 yr olds predominantly chose the delayed reward regardless of exposure. 2 explanations are offered for the results for the 7 yr olds. In one, the results are attributed to the effect of exposure on value and/or expectancy of the delayed reward. In the other, it is suggested that exposure orients attention to the value, rather than the immediacy, of the alternatives. In this view, delay of gratification in young children reflects a form of decentration. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observing response acquisition: Preference for unpredictable appetitive rewards obtained under conditions predicted by DMOD.

To investigate the preference for unpredictable rewards predicted by the present author and J. T. Daly's (see record 1983-20275-001) modification, known as the DMOD model, of R. A. Rescorla and A. R. Wagner's (1972) previous model of reinforcement, the present author conducted 5 E-maze experiments with 144 male Holtzman rats. In Exps I–V, Ss were given a choice between receiving reward and nonreward in a situation in which stimuli were correlated with reward outcome (predictable situation) vs a situation in which the stimuli were uncorrelated with reward outcome (unpredictable situation). Preference for the unpredictable situation occurred under the following conditions: small (1 37-mg pellet) immediate rewards, small delayed (15-sec) rewards when the cues correlated with reward outcome were absent during the delay interval, large (15 pellets) immediate rewards when a difficult discrimination was required, and when the stimulus predicting nonreward was present at the choice point. Preference for the predictable situation was strongest if reinforcement was delayed and large or if the stimulus predicting reward was present at the choice point. A weaker preference for the predictable situation occurred if reinforcement was immediate, large, and required a simple discrimination or if reinforcement was large and delayed and the cues that correlated with reward outcome were absent during the delay interval. Findings support the predictions of the DMOD model of appetitive learning. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affective commitment to the organization: The contribution of perceived organizational support.

Three studies examined the interrelationships among work experiences, perceived organizational support (POS), affective commitment (AC), and employee turnover. Using a diverse sample of 367 employees drawn from a variety of organizations, Study 1 found that POS mediated positive associations of organizational rewards, procedural justice, and supervisor support with AC. Study 2 examined changes of POS and AC in retail employees over a 2-year span (N?=?333) and a 3-year span (N?=?226). POS was positively related to temporal changes in AC, suggesting that POS leads to AC. Study 3 found a negative relationship between POS and subsequent voluntary employee turnover that was mediated by AC in retail employees (N?=?1,124) and in poultry- and feed-processing workers (N?=?262). These results suggest that favorable work conditions operate via POS to increase AC, which, in turn, decreases employee withdrawal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Men at high risk for alcoholism: The effect of alcohol on cardiovascular response to unavoidable shock.

Three groups of 12 nonalcoholic men at differing degrees of genetic risk for alcoholism were tested with and without alcohol for their cardiovascular response to an aversive stimulus. A high-risk group consisted of sons of alcoholic fathers with extensive transgenerational family histories of alcoholism. A moderate-risk group included sons of alcoholic fathers whose previous generation was essentially negative for other alcoholic diagnoses. The low-risk group consisted of men with negative family histories for the disorder. Heart rate and digital blood volume amplitude were measured in each subject while resting and during a signaled shock procedure. Results show that the high-risk group was more cardiovascularly reactive to the stressor than the moderate-risk group when sober. Alcohol consumption led to a dramatic reduction in the degree of reactivity in the high-risk group, and it led to increased reactivity in the moderate-risk group. The trend for the low-risk group was similar to the moderate-risk group with no significant differences between the two. The methodology and results are discussed in terms of their relevance in the etiology of alcoholism in high-risk men and in terms of the need for generational controls in studying sons of alcoholics. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of line configuration on perceived numerosity of dotted lines

Estimates the number of objects in a line are made in many different situations. This paper demonstrates that besides the actual number of dots, aspects of line configuration affect the perceived numerosity of dotted lines. Experiment 1 provides evidence that the highly studied "clutter effect" in distance perception research replicates to the numerosity domain so that lines made up of more segments are perceived to contain more dots. Experiments 2-5 provide nomological validity for the recently proposed "direct distance" effect in distance perceptions by showing that numerosity perceptions are higher the greater the euclidean length between the line end points and by manipulating euclidean length in three orthogonal ways: the relative length of segments (Experiment 2), the angle between segments (Experiment 3), and the general direction of segments (Experiment 4). Experiment 5 conceptually replicates the results of Experiments 2-4 utilizing stimuli-based versus memory-based judgments and a discrimination task. Experiments 6 and 7 extend the research on spatial perception by demonstrating that the use of euclidean length as a source of information is inversely related to line width, with width varied through clutter (Experiment 6) and total line length (Experiment 7). Overall, the results demonstrate that the robustness of the euclidean length effect is contingent on the salience of alternative spatial heuristics--specifically, euclidean width. Theoretical implications are discussed.     

The perceived diversity heuristic: The case of pseudodiversity.

One of the normative ways to decrease the risk of a pool with uncertainty prospects is to diversify its resources. Thus, decision makers are advised not to put all their eggs in one basket. The authors suggest that decision makers use a perceived diversity heuristic (PDH) to evaluate the risk of a pool by intuitively assessing the diversity of its sources. This heuristic yields biased judgments in cases of pseudodiversity, in which the perceived diversity of a pool is enhanced, although this fact does not change the pool's normative values. The first 3 studies introduce 2 independent sources of pseudodiversity—distinctiveness and multiplicity—showing that these two sources can lead to overdiversification under conditions of gain. In another set of 3 studies, the authors examine the effect of framing on diversification level. The results support the PDH predictions, according to which diversity seeking is obtained under conditions of gain, whereas diversity aversion is obtained under conditions of loss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)