The evolution of homogeneity on longitudinal sections during processing by ECAP

An Al-6061 alloy was processed by equal-channel angular pressing at room temperature for one, two, four and six passes and microhardness measurements were recorded along linear traverses on longitudinal planes in the centers of each billet. The results show the average microhardness increases significantly in the first pass although there is a region of lower hardness running in a band near the bottom surface of the billet. Additional but smaller increases in hardness occur in subsequent passes. The hardness values are distributed homogeneously throughout the longitudinal plane after ECAP through six passes although there remains a very narrow region of lower hardness within a distance of 0.5 mm adjacent to the bottom surface. When combined with earlier microhardness measurements taken on the Al-6061 alloy on the cross-sectional plane, the results confirm the potential for achieving excellent homogeneity after pressing through a total of six passes.     

Microstructural evolution in high purity aluminum processed by ECAP

High purity (99.99%) aluminum was processed by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) through 1–12 passes and examined using orientation imaging microscopy. The results reveal two distinct processing regimes: from 1 to 4 passes the microstructure evolves from elongated subgrains to an essentially equiaxed array of ultrafine grains and from 4 to 12 passes there is no measurable change in the average grain size and grain aspect ratio. The boundary misorientation angle and the fraction of high-angle boundaries increase rapidly up to 4 passes and at a slower rate from 4 to 12 passes. Anomalously large grains were visible in the central region of the billet pressed through 12 passes due to dynamic recovery and grain growth. The results suggest optimum processing is achieved by pressing through 4–8 passes.     

The development of superplastic ductilities and microstructural homogeneity in a magnesium ZK60 alloy processed by ECAP

An extruded ZK60 magnesium alloy was processed by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) and then tested in tension at elevated temperatures. The results show the alloy is superplastic at a testing temperature of 473 K with an optimum ductility of 1310% when using an initial strain rate of 2.0 × 10⁻⁴ s⁻¹. The results demonstrate that optimum superplasticity is achieved at intermediate strain rates and there are decreases in the elongations to failure at both faster and slower strain rates. Microhardness measurements were taken both on the cross-sectional plane and along the axial direction after processing by ECAP. These measurements show the alloy is essentially homogeneous in the as-pressed condition.     

Microstructural evolution in an aluminum solid solution alloy processed by ECAP

Samples of an Al-1% Mg solid solution alloy were processed by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) at room temperature for totals of 1-12 passes and the microstructures of the processed samples were examined using orientation imaging microscopy. The results demonstrate the alloy achieves a reasonably stable microstructure after 6 passes through the ECAP die with an ultimate equilibrium grain size of ∼700 nm. Measurements show both the fraction of high-angle boundaries and the average boundary misorientation increase with increasing numbers of passes up to 6 passes but thereafter there is only a minor additional increase up to 12 passes.     

An experimental evaluation of a special ECAP die containing two equal arcs of curvature

Experiments were conducted to evaluate the potential for producing a high degree of homogeneity when processing by equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) using a special split die having a channel angle of 90° but with two equal fillet radii at the outer and inner points of intersection of the two parts of the channel. Using high-purity aluminum, measurements of the Vickers microhardness were recorded over cross-sectional planes after pressing through 1-4 passes. It is shown that there is less homogeneity after 1 or 2 passes by comparison with a conventional ECAP die and after 3 and 4 passes there are narrow regions of higher hardness extending to depths of ∼1 mm along the upper surfaces of the billets. The results demonstrate a die with two equal arcs of curvature is less effective than a conventional ECAP die for producing homogeneity within the billets.     

Reversible nature of shear bands in copper single crystals subjected to iterative shear of ECAP in forward and reverse directions

Copper single crystals were subjected to equal-channel angular pressing for two passes via the routes A and C, in order to examine the effect of iterative shear in forward and reverse directions on the development of shear bands in a crystallographic aspect. Shear bands were clearly revealed metallographically after one pass, which accompanies splitting of distinct crystallographic orientations. These shear bands remained after the second pass via route A, where shear was given in a forward direction with regard to the previous shear. Micro-indentation tests show that the shear bands were harder than the matrix, and both the shear bands and the matrix became harder progressively by the second pass. In route C, where the second shear is given in the parallel plane, but in the reverse direction with regard to the previous shear, most of these shear bands were less visible in metallographic and EBSD observations. Besides, the distribution of microhardness became homogeneous across the traces of shear bands and the matrix. It is suggested that the shear bands were dissolved by merging with the matrix by diffusion of the geometrically necessary dislocations (GND) delineating the shear bands and the matrix.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of ZA62 Mg alloy by equal-channel angular pressing

The Mg-6Zn-2Al alloy was processed by ECAP and microstructure and mechanical properties of the alloy before and after ECAP were studied. The results revealed that the microstructure of the ZA62 alloy was successfully refined after two-step ECAP (2 passes at 473 K and 2-8 passes at 423 K). The course bulk interphase of Mg₅₁Zn₂₀ was crushed into fine particles and mixed with fine matrix grains forming “stripes” in the microstructure after the second step of ECAP extrusion. A bimodal microstructure of small grains of the matrix with size of ∼0.5 μm in the stripes and large grains of the matrix with size of ∼2 μm out of stripes was observed in the microstructure of samples after 4-8 passes of ECAP extrusion at the second step. The mechanical properties of the alloy studied were significantly improved after ECAP and the highest yield strength and elongation at room temperature were obtained at the samples after 4 and 8 ECAP passes at the second step, respectively. Tensile tests carried out at temperature of 473 K to 573 K and strain rate of 1 × 10⁻³ s⁻¹ to 3 × 10⁻² s⁻¹ revealed that the alloy after 8 ECAP passes at the second step showed superplasticity and the highest elongation and strain rate sensitivity (m-value) reached 520% and 0.45, respectively.     

Influence of crystal orientation on the processing of copper single crystals by ECAP

Single crystals of high-purity copper, having two different orientations, were pressed through one pass in equal-channel angular pressing (ECAP) at room temperature and then examined using several different analytical techniques. For both orientations, it is shown that elongated arrays of cells or subgrains are formed in the first pass with their long axes aligned parallel to the primary slip system. The average width of these subgrains was measured as ∼0.2 μm which is similar to the equilibrium grain size reported in polycrystalline Cu after processing by ECAP. These results confirm earlier observations using an aluminum single crystal except only that the subgrain width in copper is significantly smaller. This difference is attributed to the lower stacking-fault energy in copper and the consequent low rate of recovery.     

A modification on ECAP process by incorporating torsional deformation

In the present study, integration of equal channel angular pressing (ECAP), as a well known severe plastic deformation (SPD) technique, and torsion deformation, is studied by using three dimensional finite element analysis. This process is to be named as torsional-equal channel angular pressing (T-ECAP). In this modification a part of the exit channel in the ECAP die is rotating around its axis, to impose extra shear strains to the samples. To study deformation behavior in the T-ECAP process, three-dimensional finite element analysis (FEA) was carried out by using the elasto-plastic finite element analysis ABAQUS/Explicit Simulation. To investigate the validity of the simulation results, experimental studies were furthermore performed on commercially pure aluminum (AA 1050). Vickers hardness test was used to determine the distribution of hardness on both normal and longitudinal sections of the deformed samples with respect to the exit channel of the die. The hardness test results showed more uniform distribution of hardness in both sections of the T-ECAP processed samples regarding the ones produced by ECAP process. The load requirement comparison for performing both processes showed lower value for the T-ECAP with respect to the ECAP process. The simulation results for the strain values showed higher magnitude and more uniform distribution for the T-ECAP with respect to the ECAP process.     

等径角挤压过程中材料的流变行为研究

分析了等径角挤压过程中材料流变的原因和特征,认为每道次挤压材料内部发生的剪切变形量与时间的函数曲线呈近似正态分布,适当升高温度和增加背压能有效减小难变形区,降低通道与试样接触面之间的摩擦能减小材料内部的滞变区.通过实验证明,随着挤压道次的增加,材料内部的滞变区将减小,均匀化程度会逐步提高.     

Effect of deformation temperature on microstructure evolution in aluminum alloy 2219 during hot ECAP

The effect of deformation temperature on microstructure evolution during equal channel angular pressing (ECAP) was studied in a coarse-grained aluminum alloy 2219 in a wide temperature interval from 250 to 475 °C. The structural changes taking place during ECAP up to strains of 12 are classified into the following three stages irrespective of deformation temperatures: i.e. (1) an incubation period for formation of the embryos of deformation bands (DBs) at low strains; (2) development of large-scale DBs followed by grain fragmentation at moderate strains; (3) rapid development of new grain at high strains. Microstructure development in stages 1 and 2 is hardly influenced by temperature, while that in stage 3 is most significantly affected at higher temperature. An increase in the pressing temperature leads to decreasing the volume fraction of new grains and increasing the average grain size in stage 3. This can be attributed to relaxation of strain compatibility between grains due to frequent operation of dynamic recovery and grain boundary sliding at higher temperature. The mechanism of grain refinement is discussed in detail.     

Microstructure control during severe plastic deformation of Al-Cu-Li and the influence on strength and ductility

The microstructure and mechanical behaviour of an Al-Cu-Li alloy has been examined after processing over a wide range of conditions involving severe deformation at elevated temperatures with prior or subsequent heat treatments. Dislocation cellular or subgrain structures are obtained, with varying degrees of precipitation. High strength, as well as poor ductility, can be correlated with the presence of a high density of fine T₁ phase precipitates, with the dislocation substructure playing a smaller role. Careful control of processing conditions allows a suitable combination of good strength with ductility to be obtained.     

ECAP变形道次对珠光体钢中渗碳体球化的影响

成功地实现了珠光体钢65Mn的等径弯曲通道变形(ECAP),并研究在650℃不同ECAP变形道次的条件下渗碳体球化的演化过程.结果表明,渗碳体在ECAP热变形过程中表现出明显的加速球化特征.第一道次ECAP热变形后,片状的渗碳体演化为细小碎块的聚集体;第二道次热变形后,渗碳体实质上已破碎,呈现出颗粒状和球化渗碳体的主要形貌特征;第五道次ECAP热变形后,进一步演化为超细的球状渗碳体均匀分布于超细晶铁素体基体的组织.     

Workability characteristics and mechanical behavior modeling of severely deformed pure titanium at high temperatures

In the present study, compression tests were performed at temperatures of 600–900 °C and at strain rates of 0.001–0.1 s⁻¹ to study the deformation and workability characteristics of commercially pure titanium after severe plastic deformation (SPD). It was found that the effects of temperature and strain rate are significant in dictating the steady state flow stress levels and the strain values corresponding to peak flow stress. The strain rate sensitivity (m) during hot compression of severely deformed Ti was shown to be strongly temperature dependent, where m increased with the increase in deformation temperature up to 800 °C. High temperature workability was analyzed based on the flow localization parameter (FLP). According to the FLP values, deformation at and below 700 °C is prone to flow localization. The flow behavior was predicted using Arrhenius type and dislocation density based models. The validities of the models were demonstrated with reasonable agreement in comparison to the experimental stress–strain responses.     

The second phase particles and mechanical properties of 2124 aluminum alloy processed by accumulative back extrusion

An age-hardenable 2124 aluminum alloy was severely deformed by accumulative back extrusion (ABE) method up to three passes at 100 and 200 °C. The characteristics of the second phase particles were studied using scanning electron microscopy. The results indicated that the size of primary particles had been reduced after the first ABE pass where even much finer particles was obtained as the successive passes were applied. In addition, the secondary particles were fragmented into finer pieces after ABE at 100 °C, whereas a particle coarsening was realized as the deformation temperature rose to 200 °C. The latter was attributed to the Ostwald ripening mechanism. However, the volume fraction of secondary particles was significantly decreased after three ABE passes at 200 °C due to the occurrence of deformation induced dissolution. Additionally, the tensile properties of the processed materials were measured utilizing a miniaturized tensile testing method. The results were justified considering the evolution of the second phase particles.     

Superplastic flow in a nanostructured aluminum alloy produced using high-pressure torsion

Samples of a spray-cast Al-7034 alloy were processed by high-pressure torsion (HPT) at temperatures of 293 or 473 K using an imposed pressure of 4 GPa and torsional straining through five revolutions. Processing by HPT produced significant grain refinement with grain sizes of 60 and 85 nm at the edges of the disks for the two processing temperatures. In tensile testing at room temperature, the alloy processed by HPT exhibited higher strength and lower ductility than the unprocessed material. Good superplastic properties were achieved in tensile testing at elevated temperatures with a maximum elongation of 750% for the sample processed at 473 K and tested in tension at 703 K under an initial strain rate of 1.0 × 10⁻² s⁻¹. The measured superplastic elongations are lower than in samples prepared by equal-channel angular pressing because of the use of very thin disks in the HPT processing.     

Properties of AA6061 Processed by Multi-Axial Compressions/Forging (MAC/F)

Multi-axial compressions/forgings (MAC/F) were conducted at room temperature to obtain severe plastic deformation (SPD) of AA6061 alloy. Microhardness measurements taken across the cross-section of each of the MAC/F processed samples indicated that the hardness distribution is nonuniform during initial compressions/forgings and becomes uniform with subsequent compressions. Microhardness and tensile testing showed that the hardness, yield strength, and elongation of the MAC/F processed material followed similar trends to that for AA6061 processed by equal channel angular pressing (ECAP). The MAC/F material exhibited high strain rate sensitivity and high percentage of elongation to failure in the temperature range of 300-350°C. This observation is in agreement with the high formability of SPD-processed AA6061 over the same temperature range.     

Influence of aluminum nitride interlayers on crystal orientation and piezoelectric property of aluminum nitride thin films prepared on titanium electrodes

Highly c-axis-oriented aluminum nitride (AlN) thin films have been prepared on titanium (Ti) bottom electrodes by using AlN interlayers. The AlN interlayers were deposited between Ti electrodes and silicon (Si) substrates, such as AlN/Ti/AlN/Si. The crystallinity and crystal orientation of the AlN films and Ti electrodes strongly depended on the thickness of the AlN interlayers. Although the sputtering conditions were the same, the X-ray diffraction intensity of AlN (0002) and Ti (0002) planes drastically increased, and the full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) of the X-ray rocking curves decreased from 5.1° to 2.6° and from 3.3° to 2.0°, respectively. Furthermore, the piezoelectric constant d₃₃ of the AlN films was significantly improved from − 0.2 to − 4.5 pC/N.     

退火对ECAP纯铝组织结构、力学及腐蚀性能的影响

为研究高温后超细晶纯铝的力学性能和耐腐蚀性能变化,本文在室温下对99.6%的纯铝(CP-Al)进行等通道转角挤压(ECAP)后,获得超细晶纯铝.在8道次、Bc挤压路径,不同退火温度下,通过X射线衍射、扫描电子显微镜、单向拉伸与硬度测试及电化学测试分析,对其力学性能、组织结构、耐腐蚀性进行了研究.实验结果表明,随着退火温度的升高,8道次ECAP纯铝的强度和硬度降低,塑性逐渐提高;其在未退火及150、250、350 ℃退火后的硬度和抗拉强度分别为99.4HV,279.6 MPa、94HV,276.2 MPa、80HV,220.6 MPa、47HV,209.5 MPa;延伸率分别为4.89%、5.68%、9.81%、12.10%;晶粒尺寸由612 nm增加到1 314 nm,晶面取向发生变化.在质量分数为3.5% NaCl溶液中,对8道次ECAP纯铝在不同退火温度下分别进行了极化曲线和电化学阻抗谱(EIS)测试,并观察了显微结构图,结果表明,ECAP 8道次挤压后,随着退火温度的增加纯铝的腐蚀电流密度由未退火时的5.756 μA/cm²略减少到150 ℃的5.732 μA/cm²,而后增加到300 ℃的6.846 μA/cm²,腐蚀形貌发生改变.退火温度为150 ℃时,纯铝表现出更好的耐腐蚀性能,这是由于退火温度增加会减少材料缺陷,但晶粒增大对耐腐蚀性的抑制高于材料微观结构改善对耐腐蚀性的促进.