Leakage of Anthocyanins from Skin of Raw and Cooked Highbush Blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum L.)

Anthocyanin leakage from raw, dewaxed, or cooked blueberries was determined by spectrophotometric analysis of water in which berries were stirred. Leakage did not occur with fresh berries but was observed in samples refrigerated for 5 wk that contained soft berries. Dewaxing produced minimal leakage except with samples of poor condition. Pigment losses from dewaxed berries probably resulted from rupturing of the weakened skin. Leakage from cooked berries was more extensive, leakage vs stirring time curves being linear or two-phase linear. Leakage rates for cooked berries varied among the cultivars compared and appeared to be associated with the incidence of skin rupturing and with berry pigment content.     

Berry size and vine water deficits as factors in winegrape composition: Anthocyanins and tannins

Soluble solids, seed tannin, skin tannin, and skin anthocyanin were measured in fruit from Cabernet Sauvignon vines that had experienced either High, Control or Low water status during ripening. Berries from each treatment were segregated into 6 size categories at harvest in order to test independently for relationships due to size compared with those due to water deficits. Berry content of all solutes increased approximately in proportion to the increase in berry size. Deviations from proportionality caused Brix and anthocyanin concentration (mg per unit berry fresh mass) to decrease, and the concentration of skin tannin to remain unchanged or decrease slightly with increasing berry size. The concentration of seed tannin did not decrease and appeared to increase with berry size in multiple-seeded berries. In comparison with skin tannin or anthocyanin content, seed tannin content varied more with berry size and less with vine water status. In addition to decreasing berry size, water deficits increased the amount of skin tannin and anthocyanin per berry and the concentrations of skin tannin and anthocyanins, but did not significantly affect the content or concentration of seed tannin. The results show that there are effects of vine water status on fruit composition that arise independently of the resultant differences in fruit size. The effect of vine water status on the concentration of skin tannin and anthocyanin was greater than the effect of fruit size on those same variables. However, the increases in skin tannin and anthocyanin that accompanied water deficits appear to result more from differential growth sensitivity of inner mesocarp and exocarp than direct effects on phenolic biosynthesis.     

套袋对红地球葡萄果皮色素和果实品质的影响

以红地球葡萄为试材,研究了不同栽培条件下套袋对葡萄果皮花青苷、叶绿素含量及果实品质的影响。结果表明,红古地区露地栽培条件下,套袋降低了可溶性固形物、总糖、花青苷、叶绿素含量,增加了可滴定酸含量;临泽地区在设施栽培条件下套白纸袋增加了可溶性固形物、总糖、花青苷含量,降低了可滴定酸、叶绿素含量。套袋对氨基酸含量影响不大,但设施延后栽培的红地球各处理氨基酸含量均高于露地。     

Anthocyanin composition and extractability in berry skin and wine of Vitis vinifera L. cv. Aglianico

BACKGROUND: The present article reports the anthocyanin content in the berry skin and wine of the Italian red grape cultivar Aglianico (clone VCR11 grafted onto 1103 Paulsen), one of the most ancient vines and famous for its deep‐red colour. Anthocyanins were extracted from frozen berry skin in an acidified methanol solution. The extraction mixtures, monitored for 120 h, were analysed by high‐performance liquid chromatography. RESULTS: The extraction from berry skin of delphinidin, petunidin and malvidin appeared to be a time‐independent process, whereas the concentration of peonidin increased linearly with time. Peonidin‐O‐acetyl‐glucoside was transferred from skin more slowly than petunidin‐O‐acetyl‐glucoside and malvidin‐O‐acetyl‐glucoside. The anthocyanin composition of the resulting wine showed that the total anthocyanin content was about one‐tenth of the corresponding berry skin content. The ratio acetyl/coumaroyl anthocyanins in the wine was sharply higher than the value in berry skin (0.85 and 0.10, respectively), indicating an enrichment of acetyl derivatives in the wine. CONCLUSION: Levels of single anthocyanins in wine were not always correlated with those detected in grapes, as they were affected by winemaking. The high values of some anthocyanins in Aglianico wine could ameliorate its quality, increasing the chromatic properties, aging stability and product acceptance. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

CIELAB coordinates in response to berry skin anthocyanins and their composition in Vitis

Abstract: Berry skin color OIV index, anthocyanin composition, and content of 78 grape cultivars were surveyed using a CIELAB system and high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)‐mass spectrometry (MS) coupled with photodiode array detection. There were high correlations between L*, b*, and color, while a* was not a representative parameter. L* and b* values declined as berry skin color OIV became darker, and a* increased as berry skin color OIV became darker in pink and red grape cultivars only. The composition and content of anthocyanins varied widely among the cultivars. Total anthocyanins and types of anthocyanins were significantly correlated with color OIV parameters. Through multiple linear regression analysis, cyanidin derivatives had a positive effect on values of L* and b*. Delphinidin derivatives had positive effects on the value of a*. The CIELAB system gave good results for differentiation of grape berry skin color OIV.     

Possible use of texture characteristics of winegrapes as markers for zoning and their relationship with anthocyanin extractability index

Ribeira Sacra Denomination of Origin is a steep slope viticulture area located in Galicia (northwest of Spain), and it is divided into five different subzones. Taking into account that grape composition depends not only on the grape cultivar used but also on the environmental factors and cultural practices, texture analysis has been proposed to assess the grape mechanical properties of those subzones. With the aid of principal component analysis, berry skin break energy measured on bottom side and berry cohesiveness have been suggested as the best mechanical properties for the subzones differentiation. Moreover, significant correlations among mechanical parameters and anthocyanin extractability index were found. A regression hyperplane allowed estimating anthocyanin extractability from berry skin thickness and Young′s modulus measured on the lateral side of grapes. The speed of mechanical analysis facilitates the planning and management of pressing and maceration processes as a consequence of the drastic reduction in sample treatment time.     

套袋对红地球葡萄果实色素形成及PPO和PAL活性的影响

以红地球葡萄为试材,研究了套袋对葡萄果皮色素形成及多酚氧化酶(PPO)、苯丙氨酸解氨酶(PAL)活性的影响。结果表明:套袋处理总体上降低了葡萄果皮叶绿素、类胡萝卜素、花青苷、类黄酮、总酚含量及PPO活性,且类黄酮、总酚、PPO等物质含量的变化与花青苷含量的变化具有显著或极显著的相关性;葡萄果皮花青苷含量与果皮PAL活性二者并非呈简单的正相关关系,套袋处理明显降低了二者的相关系数;但未显著影响葡萄果皮着色,说明红地球可能为散射光着色品种。     

Anthocyanin fingerprint of grapes: environmental and genetic variations

The anthocyanin content and fingerprint of four different Vitis vinifera L. varieties (Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot, Syrah and Monastrell), the last grown in two different locations, were studied during three growing seasons to determine how seasonal conditions and location affect the content of berry anthocyanins and their relative percentages. Important differences in the content of anthocyanins were detected among varieties—Monastrell grapes from one of the locations presenting the highest anthocyanin content—when expressed as µg g^?1 of skin. However, due to the large berry size of Monastrell grapes, when the results were expressed as mg kg^?1 of berry, Cabernet Sauvignon and Syrah grapes presented the highest concentration. Significant differences were found as regards growing season, the concentration of anthocyanins being lowest in 2003, the warmest year. As regards the relative percentage of the different anthocyanins, substantial differences were found between varieties, but again, the results were also influenced by the year under study. When the percentages of anthocyanins were used as variables in a discriminant analysis, a 100% correct classification of the four different varieties was obtained. Moreover, to check the suitability of this tool for classifying varieties, data referring to the anthocyanin percentages of the four varieties grown in very different agroecological conditions and at different ripening stages were tested with the model we have built, 89% of correct classification being achieved. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Pectin-derived oligosaccharides increase color and anthocyanin content in Flame Seedless grapes

BACKGROUND: Grapes grown in warm weather do not develop a desirable red color and require the use of products to enhance berry color. Pectin‐derived oligosaccharides (PDOs) have been shown to have a role in various responses including plant defense, growth and development. In this work a mixture of PDOs with 3–20 degrees of polymerization was applied to Vitis vinifera cv. Flame Seedless grapes under field conditions and compared to the effects of ethephon (an ethylene‐releasing compound). The effect of treatments on grape color, anthocyanin content and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) mRNA levels was evaluated. RESULTS: PDOs treatment increased berry color measured by the Color Index of Red Grapes (CIRG) and anthocyanin content, compared to ethephon and untreated berries (control); 1.5, 1 and 0.5 mg mL^?1 PDOs increased berry color by 30%, 27% and 26%, respectively, when compared to control berries. Levels of PAL mRNA accumulating in berries treated with PDOs were elevated within the first 24 h of treatment. CONCLUSIONS: PDOs enhanced the color and anthocyanin content of Flame Seedless grape berries possibly due by the induction of PAL mRNA expression. The results demonstrated that PDOs can be used to improve fruit quality aspects such as berry skin color. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Berry skin thickness as main texture parameter to predict anthocyanin extractability in winegrapes

Red grapes are the only source of anthocyanins in wines and therefore the assessment of their extractability is important for wine quality. To date, a mathematical equation relating skin mechanical properties and anthocyanin extractability has never been performed for different ripening stages and vineyards located in a given production area. The main aim of this work was to assess anthocyanin extractability attempting to its relation with skin textural parameters. Morphological parameters, skin texture characteristics, total anthocyanin contents and extractability percentages were determined in Mencía grape berries (Vitis vinifera L.) from several vineyards and calibrated according to their density at three amounts of soluble solids. Skin mechanical properties were measured by Texture Analysis; a rapid and low-cost analytical technique. In most vineyards, an increasing tendency of texture parameter values was observed with the ripening stage but the differences were not statistically significant. The accumulation of anthocyanins in berry skin usually increased with the ripening stage. Anthocyanin extractability was no influenced by ripening stages for each vineyard studied. The study allowed to establish a skin texture parameter as predictor of anthocyanin extractability for a given production area. Thinner skins seem to be characterized by a greater release of red pigments.     

The effect of bunch shading on berry development and flavonoid accumulation in Shiraz grapes

Opaque boxes were applied to bunches of Shiraz grapes prior to flowering to determine the effect of sunlight on berry development and accumulation of flavonoids. The boxes were designed to maintain airflow while excluding light and thus to minimise changes in temperature and humidity. There was no significant effect of shading on sugar accumulation and in two of the three seasons studied there was no effect on berry weight. Chlorophyll concentration was much lower in the shaded fruit, which appeared pale yellow until veraison. The fruit coloured normally in the shaded bunches and in two of the three seasons there was no significant change in anthocyanin content. Expression of the gene encoding UDP-glucose flavonoid-3-O-glucosyl transferase (UFGT), a key gene in anthocyanin synthesis, increased after veraison and was similar in both shaded and exposed fruit. Anthocyanin composition was altered in the shaded fruit, which had a greater proportion of the dioxygenated anthocyanins, the glucosides of cyanidin and peonidin. Shading had no significant effect on the levels of condensed tannins in the skin or seeds of ripe fruit. Shading significantly reduced the levels of flavonols in the grape skin. In the exposed fruit, flavonol concentration was highest around flowering then declined as the berries grew, but there was an increase in flavonols per berry during ripening. When the boxes were applied before flowering, shaded fruit had much lower levels of flavonols throughout berry development and at harvest the level of flavonols were less than 10% of that in exposed fruit. A gene encoding flavonol synthase (FLS) was expressed at flowering and during ripening in exposed grapes but its expression was greatly reduced in shaded fruit. The results indicate that shading had little effect on berry development and ripening, including accumulation of anthocyanins and tannins, but significantly decreased flavonol synthesis.     

Impacts of crop level,soil and irrigation management in grape berries of cv ‘Trincadeira’ (Vitis vinifera L.)

Berry size and crop yield are widely recognized as important factors that contribute to wine quality. The final berry size indirectly affects the phenolic concentration of the wine due to skin surface-to-berry volume ratio. The effects of different irrigation levels, soil management and plant crop level on growth of ‘Trincadeira’ berries were studied. In order to test the influence of different irrigation levels (rainfed, pre-veraison and post-veraison), different soil management (tillage and natural cover crops) and different plant crop levels (8 and 16 clusters per vine), leaf water potential, skin anthocyanin, polyphenols, berry skin and seed fresh weight were measured in fruits. The segregation of berries into three different berry classes: small, medium and large, allowed to identify different levels of contribution of soil management and irrigation level into berry, skin and seeds ratios. As expected, higher water availability due to irrigation and soil tillage management during berry development induced an increase in berry flesh weight and this was more evident in larger berries; however, berry skin and seed fresh weight remained unchanged. Also, anthocyanins did not show significant differences.     

Excessive nitrogen supply and shoot trimming can impair colour development in Pinot Noir grapes and wine

We investigated the effects of nitrogen supply and shoot trimming on mature, field-grown Pinot Noir ( Vitis vinifera L.) vines. Ammonium nitrate (0, 30, 60, 90 kg N/ha) was applied at the beginning of flowering. Shoots were topped either once (at fruit set), or twice, (at fruit set and during the lag-phase of berry growth). Neither treatment affected grape berry and skin weights, yield and grape sugar, but high rates of nitrogen increased malic acid and reduced skin phenols, flavonols and anthocyanins. Malvidin-3-glucoside was the most abundant anthocyanin in skins and wine. It accounted for 75% of the total anthocyanins at the beginning of fermentation and its relative proportion increased to 95% in the finished wine.
Increases in anthocyanin concentration at the beginning of fermentation and before malolactic fermentation, were followed by declines during the later stages of alcoholic and malolactic fermentation. High nitrogen supply decreased anthocyanins in the juice and wine, increased pH and increased the percentage of malvidin-3-glucoside. Repeated shoot topping gave lower wine total phenols and anthocyanins and thus enhanced the nitrogen effect. Wine susceptibility to oxidation increased with higher pH and lower anthocyanin content. The best treatment combination for fruit and wine quality, in terms of colour and oxidative stability, was low nitrogen/single topping and the worst combination was high nitrogen/repeated topping. These results suggest that a combination of high rates of nitrogen fertiliser and repeated shoot trimming can decrease potential fruit and wine quality.     

Changes of polyphenols, sugars, and organic acid in 5 Vitis genotypes during berry ripening

The concentrations of sugars, organic acids, and polyphenols during berry ripening in 5 grape genotypes were analyzed using HPLC and HPLC-MS to determine which were correlated. Veraison is critical stage during grape berry development, and marks the beginning of ripening. Glucose and fructose accumulated sharply in a 1 : 1 ratio, though the concentration of fructose was slightly higher than that of glucose at maturation. Malic acid and tartaric acid were the dominant organic acids, and they decreased rapidly during berry ripening. The 5 cultivars contained 28 anthocyanins and 8 other polyphenols. All anthocyanins accumulated and were positively correlated with the sugars and negatively correlated with the organic acids. Hydroxycinnamic acids declined and were positively correlated with anthocyanin contents. Changes in flavanols and flavonols different among the 5 genotypes, with flavonols positively correlated with anthocyanin content, but the flavanols procyanidin B1 and epicatechin negatively correlated with anthocyanins content. There were obvious differences in patterns of change of polyphenols among 5 grape genotypes. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The results could be used for improving grape berry quality during ripening and developing a comprehensive database of primary and secondary metabolites in the Vitis for grape breeding.     

膨大剂对藤稔和夏黑葡萄品质的影响

对来自五个产地的鲜食葡萄进行采样,分析不同种类和浓度的生长调节剂对果实品质的影响.结果表明,无论GA3单独处理(50 mg/L,泰安)还是GA3与5 mg/LCPPU复合处理(莱西)均极显著增加了藤稔葡萄果实粒质量和穗质量,增加了穗柄和果柄粗度,增加了果刷粗度但缩短了长度;两种处理均极显著降低了果实糖度,抑制了果实着色,果皮花青素含量分别比对照下降57.81％和64.11％.对于夏黑品种来说,各种激素组合处理均极显著增大了果实大小,增粗了穗柄/轴和果柄果蒂,降低了果实糖度和花青素含量.其中在威海的两次CPPU处理比一次处理的果皮花青素含量下降了53.15％,平度一次TDZ高浓度处理比对照花青素含量下降63.87％.综合看,两次处理特别是加入较高浓度细胞分裂素处理不利于夏黑果实糖度积累和着色,也不利于果实贮藏运输.     

ABA和乙烯利处理对京优葡萄果皮花色苷和果实品质的影响

以京优葡萄为试材,研究不同浓度ABA和乙烯利处理果穗对果皮花色苷含量及果实品质的影响.结果表明,ABA和乙烯利处理皆能促进果实软化、有机酸降解、可溶性固形物和果皮色素积累,具有促进果实成熟的作用.乙烯利软化果实的效果明显好于ABA,但促进果实可溶性固形物积累的效果弱于ABA.300 mg/L ABA和乙烯利处理的催熟效果不明显,仅能使果实提前3～6d成熟;高浓度乙烯利处理(600 mg/L和900 mg/L)可以有效促进果实成熟,但会导致着色不良、裂果和落果等问题;600 mg/LABA处理效果最佳,可以使果实提前13～16 d成熟,且果实理化指标皆能满足商品要求.     

Anthocyanins, flavonols and hydroxycinnamates: an attempt to use them to discriminate Vitis vinifera L. cv ‘Barbera’ clones

Anthocyanin and flavonol profiles of Vitis vinifera berry skin have been diffusely studied in past years to identify the effects exerted by climate, environment and cultural practices on their biosynthesis. They have also been used for chemotaxonomic purposes with the aim of classifying grape varieties. Hydroxycinnamates and phenolic acids are the most important group of non-flavonoid phenols in grapes and wines. In the present work six ‘Barbera’ clones were grown in the same site to evaluate the influence of two seasons on the accumulation of flavonoids and hydroxycinnamates at maturity. Berry skins were extracted in an ethanolic buffer and flavonoids and hydroxycinnamates were separated by HPLC. Two principal component analysis (PCA) models were built to identify phenolic parameters exploitable to classify clones. The PCA scores were taken further to perform discriminant analysis to evaluate the degree of classification possible. A significant seasonal variability was observed for most phenolic features, whereas some parameters such as total anthocyanin expressed on a per berry basis, the sum of tri-hydroxylated anthocyanin percentages, the percentages of kaempferol glucuronide and the total hydroxycinnamate content were stable over the seasons. The percentage of individual anthocyanin alone, not associated with maturity data, was not effective in classifying clones; in association with maturity data it allowed to discriminate clones, similarly to what it was previously assessed for classifying varieties. The results indicated that LDA models developed on the PCA scores including maturity data correctly classified 75% of clones.     

“赤霞珠”葡萄转色后不同成熟度指标的变化

研究酿酒葡萄转色后不同成熟度指标的动态变化规律。以“赤霞珠”葡萄为试材,分别测定了技术成熟度和总酚成熟度指标,并进行了浆果感官评价。结果表明：转色后果实物理性状参数和糖含量迅速增加,转色后第4周达到最大值,成熟后期略有下降。果实中总花色苷含量逐渐增加,在转色后第6周达到最高,随后有所降低。浆果中可提取花色苷含量持续增加。细胞成熟指数、种子成熟指数和总酚指数总体上逐渐降低。果皮单宁含量变化较小,种子单宁含量在成熟前期显著降低（P＜0.05）,后期变化较小。不同分子大小聚合色素的含量逐渐增加,转色后第6周时达到最大值。浆果感官评价中各种成熟度的得分逐渐增加,果肉香气成熟度和果皮成熟度得分均在转色后第7周时最高,成熟后期变化较小。     

Anthocyanin composition of Tempranillo, Garnacha and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes from high- and low-quality vineyards over two years

The anthocyanin composition of Tempranillo, Garnacha and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes over two vintages was studied. Samples were obtained during berry ripening from two vineyards that differed by producing fruit of high and low quality. The proportions of the individual compounds remained practically constant within a single vineyard along the sampling period, the changes in the anthocyanin composition being principally quantitative. Different multivariate statistical methods showed that the anthocyanin profile was primarily determined by variety. This genetic dependence was particularly verified when the sums of the non-acylated glucosides, the acetates and the p-coumaryl derivatives, were analysed. The mean relative content corresponding to these three anthocyanin fractions was always the same within each variety, independently either of the vineyard or the vintage year considered. Relating to the individual compounds, several permanent qualitative differences between vineyards in each variety were also found, although the difference in the total anthocyanin concentration was always much higher.     

基于模糊数学和聚类分析的鲜食葡萄品种综合品质评价

对2013年陕西渭北地区的14 个鲜食葡萄品种的17 项生物经济学指标进行观察测定,并运用模糊数学和聚类分析评价了不同葡萄品种果实的综合品质。结果表明：品种间果实的果粒形状、产量、花色苷含量、果粉厚度、果皮厚度和果皮颜色性状变异系数较大,而果实感官品质和内在品质相关指标的变异系数较小。模糊数学评价筛选出综合品质较好的品种为红地球、夏黑、红宝石、8611、金田0601和魏可,而秦龙大穗、弗雷无核的综合品质较差。聚类分析结果表明,品质优等的8611、红地球、红宝石和魏可聚为一类,为优良的鲜食葡萄栽培种,品质中等的玫瑰香、巨玫瑰和红乳聚为一类,而品质最差的弗雷无核单独聚为一类。模糊数学评价方法结合聚类分析可给予葡萄综合品质较全面、客观的评价。