Evolution of energy policy in the Netherlands: past,present and future

In this paper, the past, present and possible future developments of energy policy for the built environment in the Netherlands are described briefly. The focus is on the development of and necessity for introducing new policy instruments for the built environment. Over the years, energy policy has evolved gradually to create a more integrated approach to the energy efficiency of buildings and larger urban districts. However, further evolution might be inevitable due to a shift of the primary driver for ‘energy’ policy from energy conservation to carbon dioxide reduction. Maximum targets of carbon dioxide emissions are being developed for each sector by 2010 and each sector has the obligation to meet its defined carbon dioxide reduction goal. Severe carbon dioxide reduction goals for the built environment in the Netherlands can only be achieved by means of energy efficiency improvement and fuel substitution, replacing natural gas with lower-carbon fuels. The introduction of lower-carbon fuels raises policy questions on whether to maintain the old infrastructure at great cost or whether investment should be in a new energy infrastructure and how this transition can be managed.     

Life-cycle carbon and cost analysis of energy efficiency measures in new commercial buildings

Energy efficiency in new building construction has become a key target to lower nation-wide energy use. The goals of this paper are to estimate life-cycle energy savings, carbon emission reduction, and cost-effectiveness of energy efficiency measures in new commercial buildings using an integrated design approach, and estimate the implications from a cost on energy-based carbon emissions. A total of 576 energy simulations are run for 12 prototypical buildings in 16 cities, with 3 building designs for each building-location combination. Simulated energy consumption and building cost databases are used to determine the life-cycle cost-effectiveness and carbon emissions of each design. The results show conventional energy efficiency technologies can be used to decrease energy use in new commercial buildings by 20-30% on average and up to over 40% for some building types and locations. These reductions can often be done at negative life-cycle costs because the improved efficiencies allow the installation of smaller, cheaper HVAC equipment. These improvements not only save money and energy, but reduce a building’s carbon footprint by 16% on average. A cost on carbon emissions from energy use increases the return on energy efficiency investments because energy is more expensive, making some cost-ineffective projects economically feasible.     

Partnership in building energy performance contracting

Building energy performance contracting is a business strategy to assist building owners overcome the financial barriers for improving the energy performance of their buildings. In return for the investments made into the energy-saving measures, the energy service contractors would share with the building owners the energy cost saving. Although the contractual arrangement is meant to create a win-win situation, disappointments could arise due to mismatches between the expected and actual outcomes. From a micro-economics viewpoint, the key factors contributing to the failure of a building energy performance contract are reviewed. To solve the commonly encountered problems in building energy performance contracting, it is proposed the conventional performance contract is replaced with a partnership formed jointly by the building owner and the energy service contractor, with the latter assuming the role of the performance contractor. This would unite the goals of the two parties and cultivate genuine cooperation between them. The key features for this new contractual arrangement are described along with how this arrangement could resolve typical energy performance contracting problems.     

发电行业低碳减排技术水平评估体系及方法

在发电行业低碳减排技术分类的基础上,建立了发电行业低碳减排技术评估指标体系,然后进一步确定发电行业低碳减排技术评估方法,发电行业低碳减排技术评估结果表明:单以温室气体减排为目标,则从将来的低碳技术发展角度,我国发电行业节能减排的重点还是应该以能效提高技术类别为主,从综合性而言,具有明显的低碳优势;同时结合清洁能源发电技术,并以温室气体削减和利用技术为长远战略,可以形成我国发电行业低碳减排支撑新技术的整体结构。     

Saturation, energy consumption, CO2 emission and energy efficiency from urban and rural households appliances in Mexico

Energy usage and energy efficiency are of increasing concern in Mexico, electricity generation principally depends upon fossil fuels. On one hand, the stocks of these fuels have been confirmed to be critically limited. On the other hand, in process of electricity generation by means of these fuels, a number of poisonous by-products adversely affect the conservation of natural eco-system.This paper focuses on estimation of energy consumption, energy savings, reduction of emissions of CO₂ for use of urban and rural household appliances in Mexico between 1996 and 2021.The analysis concentrates on six major energy end uses in the residential sector: refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines, TV set, iron and heater.It is estimated that by 2021 there will be a cumulative saving of 22,605 GWh, as a result of the implementation of government programs on energy efficiency that represents a cumulative reduction of CO2 emissions of 15,087 Tg CO2.It means that Mexico can reduce in 5650 MW the generation capacity of national electricity system, which is to avoid burning 40.35 MM barrels of oil.The findings can be useful to policy makers as well as household appliances users.     

Beyond the code: Energy, carbon, and cost savings using conventional technologies

As states in the U.S. adopt new energy codes, it is important to understand the benefits for each state and its building owners. This paper estimates life-cycle energy savings, carbon emission reduction, and cost-effectiveness of conventional energy efficiency measures in new commercial buildings using an integrated design approach. Results are based on 8208 energy simulations for 12 prototypical buildings in 228 cities, with 3 building designs evaluated for each building-location combination. Results are represented by easy-to-understand mappings that allow for regional and state comparisons. The results show that the use of conventional energy efficiency technologies in an integrated design framework can decrease energy use by 15-20% on average in new commercial buildings, and over 35% for some building types and locations. These energy reductions can often be accomplished at negative incremental life-cycle costs and reduce a building's energy-related carbon footprint by 9-33%. However, generalizing these results on energy use, life-cycle costs, and carbon emissions misses exceptions in the results that show the importance of location-specific characteristics. Also, states do not appear to base energy code adoption decisions on either potential energy savings or life-cycle cost savings.     

Design strategy for low-energy ventilation and cooling within an urban heat island

Natural ventilation is a proven strategy for maintaining thermal comfort in non-domestic buildings in the UK. The energy consumption and thus the carbon dioxide emissions that contribute to global warming are lower than in conventional air-conditioned buildings. However, the ambient temperatures in the UK have risen over the last decade and new climatic data for use in the design of naturally ventilated buildings has been published. Using these data and dynamic thermal modelling, it is shown that passive stack ventilation alone was unlikely to maintain summertime comfort in a proposed University College London building within an urban heat island. The stack ventilation strategy was evolved by the introduction of passive downdraught cooling. This low-energy technique enables cooled air to be distributed throughout the building without mechanical assistance. The underlying principles of the technique were explored using physical models and the anticipated performance predicted using thermal modelling. The architectural integration is illustrated and the control strategy described. The resulting building is believed to be the first large-scale application of the passive downdraught cooling technique; construction began in late 2003.     

区域性能源消耗预测及节能减排研究

以某开发区规划为基础,探讨了符合现行节能规范要求的情况下区域节能手段与节能量,计算了二氧化碳减排量。经采取节能措施,可实现减少二氧化碳排放量10．6×10^4t／a,效果显著。     

The dynamic impact of carbon reduction and renewable support policies on the electricity sector

Carbon reduction and renewable energy policies are implemented in Europe to improve the sustainability of the electricity sector while achieving security of supply. We investigate the interactions between these policies using a dynamic investment model. Our analysis indicates that both policies are necessary to achieve a sustainable power sector. However, renewable energy generation significantly affects carbon markets and could lead to very low prices. These would attract investments in carbon intensive technologies, locking the sector into future higher emissions. To contrast this effect, policy makers may introduce a floor price in the carbon market or adjust the emissions quota periodically.     

地源热泵--建筑节能新技术

在建筑供热空调中采用热泵技术可以有效地提高一次能源利用率，减少温室效应气体CO2和其他大气污染物的排放。本文阐述了利用热泵供热比锅炉直接燃烧供热节能的原理，对主要的热泵供热形式，特别是地源热泵的技术特征、适用范围和经济性作了较详细的介绍。     

Addressing climate change in comfort standards

According to the Buildings Energy Data Book published by the U.S. Department of Energy, in 2006 the building sector consumed 38.9% of the total primary energy used in the United States. Of this energy, 34.8% is used by buildings for space heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. This energy often involves the combustion of fossil fuels, contributing to carbon dioxide emissions and climate change. Even if greenhouse gas concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere, extreme climate events and sea level rise will continue for several centuries due to inertia of the atmosphere. Therefore, adaptation will be a necessary compliment to carbon dioxide mitigation efforts. This paper argues that both mitigation of greenhouse gases and adaptation to climate change should be added to our building codes and standards. Since space heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning utilize a large amount of energy in buildings, we should begin by redefining our thermal comfort standards and add strategies that mitigate carbon dioxide emissions and adapt to predicted climate variability.     

Decoupling climate-policy objectives and mechanisms to reduce fragmentation

ABSTRACT

The efficacy of climate-change mitigation policy within the building sector is examined in terms of how fragmentation can limit the extent of mitigation actions that can be achieved in a timely manner. The policy and regulatory context for the building industry is examined in relation to the policy context for solutions and recommendations that will work for all parties. Based on this analysis, two substantive recommendations are made for improved policy design. Firstly, a decoupling of policy objectives and policy mechanisms is needed so that the policy-taking stakeholders (in design, development and construction) can reduce energy use in buildings more effectively. Secondly, policy-taking stakeholders need an explicit and diverse system in order to advocate for policy objectives. The major aspect of this work is the development of a new conceptual framework that ties together these recommendations into a continuous process of policy-making and policy-taking. This framework demonstrates an idealized system that operates simultaneously top down and bottom up, and the development of policy objectives is influenced by stakeholders of all kinds to further the goals of an energy-efficient, low-carbon built environment.     

分布式能源利用的经济性与环境影响研究——基于DER-CAM模型

分布式供能系统是一种先进的供能系统,具有高效、环保、经济等特点,在降低建筑能耗方面潜力巨大。采用DER-CAM模型模拟我国不同气候区的商业建筑分布式能源的经济性与环境影响,得到多技术集成优化能有效减排降本、政策引导与经济刺激会促进分布式能源技术应用等启示,为我国能源合理规划、适宜技术选择以及提升能源效率及经济性提供参考。     

Impact of energy efficiency measures on the CO2 emissions in the residential sector,a large scale analysis

Like all industrialised countries, Belgium accepted to diminish its greenhouse gas emissions in the frame of the Kyoto agreement. On top of the list figures CO₂. A major emission source for CO₂ is burning fossil fuels. As the residential sector accounts for 28% of the country’s annual energy consumption and as this consumption mainly concerns fossil fuels, it has an equally important share in the CO₂ release. Hence, at first sight, the best policy for a decrease is by improving the energy efficiency. The question to be solved, however, is which improvement could generate the reduction needed?This study discusses a methodology and comments simulations that help in answering that question. The results are not as simple as one should like. The housing stock in fact acts as a conservatory system. For the case being, the impact of energy efficient new construction on the CO₂ release remains quite marginal if the period considered does not extend beyond a decade. The effect becomes significant only over a longer period, on condition that more stringent energy efficiency measures are combined with a shift from new construction to retrofit and reconstruction. Also a diminishing increase in the number of households may help in reducing energy consumption and CO₂ release.     

Energy conservation regulations: Impacts on design and procurement of low energy buildings

To reduce the substantial contribution of the built environment to energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions, the new ‘Part L: Conservation of Fuel and Power’ of the Building Regulations for England and Wales came into force in April, 2006. As a result, the design of all new-build and refurbished buildings must comply with ‘Target Carbon Emissions Rates’. Apart from the purely practical implications of compliance, the new Part L has prompted interesting questions concerning procurement and the impact on design and construction teams.     

Energy efficiency and building construction in India

The energy conservation has become an important issue in building design, it is logical to apply the principle of energy costing to building projects, and to look for ways to minimize the total energy consumed during their lifetime. Even though the total quantity of energy consumed in a building during its lifetime may be many times than that consumed in its construction, there are number of reasons why the energy use in the construction process, and in particular in the building materials used, should be treated as a matter of importance in looking for ways to minimize energy use in the built environment as a whole. In this paper the energy costs of alternative construction techniques using an optimization framework are assessed and compared. The techniques of construction evaluated in this paper are commonly used pucca techniques as well as low-cost construction techniques. Energy consumption and resource requirements due to the use of alternative techniques of construction for a representative room of size 3.5 m×3.5 m×3.14 m are evaluated. An assessment of the magnitude of energy consumption, if housing shortages have to be met, shows that a huge amount of energy would be consumed in housing sector alone. The associated levels of carbon dioxide emissions associated with this construction would also be prohibitively high. Finally the paper concludes with recommendations for structural changes in the energy and construction policy in India to minimize energy consumption in building construction.     

Embodied energy analysis of the indirect solar drying unit

The increase in cost of fossil fuel and unavailability of electricity are the barrier for farmers to run their farm machineries and their development. Solar drying is a technique that not only helps in reducing fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emission by avoiding the use of machines in this sector, but also reduces the post-harvest food losses too. In present study, embodied energy analysis has been done for indirect solar dryer unit. Fenugreek leaves of 02?kg were put in each tray inside indirect solar dryer unit for drying purposes. Various environmental and economic parameters have been evaluated, which includes the payback period by cost, the energy payback time (EPBT), embodied energy, CO₂ emission and the earned carbon credit. The total embodied energy of the system is 1081.83?kWh. The EPBT and CO₂ emission are found to be 4.36 years and 391.52?kg per year, respectively.     

Sustainable development of renewable energy on Wangan Island,Taiwan

This study investigated the potential of achieving energy autonomy in Wangan Island, based on the use of renewable energy. The simulation results of air pollutants indicate that there could be a 30–40% reduction in emissions because of an improvement in energy efficiency. The reduction of CO₂ emissions exceeded 50% in two scenarios of energy integration systems after energy efficiency was improved. Renewables could replace costly diesel for electricity generation on Wangan, and become a successful condition example of sustainable development. Roadmaps are needed for Wangan to scale up its applications of renewables, whether in the power or transportation sectors. This requires support from central government and reform in regulatory arrangements in the energy sector.     

Electricity reform in Serbia

According to the Agreement on Stabilization and Integration to European Union, Serbia is obligatory to implement reforms in power sector and its power policy must be in accordance with the European Union power policy. Power sector reforms in Serbia have been started, and certain results were achieved. But, electric power infrastructure became technologically obsolete, and for its reconstruction significant investments and the active part of the state are necessary. Operative efficiency is at very low level. Also, Serbia has not yet decided whether Serbian Electric Power Industry will be privatized or not and if it is privatized which model will be applied and when.     

低能耗绿色建筑中针对被动式太阳能技术应用评价方法研究

建筑作为人类文明最重要的产物之一,在全球范围内消耗约40%的一次能源,排放约30%温室气体。在全球能源危机与气候问题的背景下,应采取积极措施减少和取代化石燃料的消耗,同时又不能降低建成环境的舒适度水平。实际上,为实现建筑的"开源""节流"并举的目标,提高建筑能源效率与应用可再生能源的建筑技术已经在建筑领域取得诸多成就。被动式太阳能建筑技术是指通过建筑朝向的合理选择和周围环境的合理布置,内部空间和外部形体的巧妙处理,以及建筑材料和构造的恰当选择,使其在冬季能够收集、储存并使用太阳能,辅助建筑的采暖;同时在夏季通过采取遮阳、自然通风等措施又能屏蔽太阳辐射,帮助室内散热,从而辅助建筑的降温。常见的被动式太阳能建筑技术,例如直接受益太阳能系统、间接受益太阳能系统、独立太阳能系统已经被广泛应用于各类建筑之中。但是,通过综述美国LEED与德国En EV,以及我国《绿色建筑评价标准》与《被动式超低能耗绿色建筑技术导则》等评价体系的相关调研情况发现,在现行的绿色建筑、低能耗建筑评价标准中,太阳能利用的评价方法是以主动式技术应用为基础的,并未全面考虑被动式太阳能建筑技术的贡献率问题。针对此问题,通过分析评价原则与目标、评价指标性质、核心评价指标遴选,提出一种低能耗绿色建筑中针对被动式太阳能贡献率问题的评价方法,以相对太阳能贡献率概念,应对我国太阳能资源分配不均的问题,并提出评价被动式太阳能建筑技术的算法。最后对评价结果的交流、弹性与适应性进行了讨论。并以一栋坐落于中国天津的绿色建筑为例。天津属于太阳能采暖适宜气候区A区,《被动式太阳能建筑技术规范》中的太阳能贡献率参考值为20%。在室内设计温度设置为18℃的情况下,若通过实测计算该建筑的太阳能贡献率为25%,则相对太阳能贡献率在15%~30%区间范围内,因此该建筑可以被认定为第二等级或加分。该评价方法坚持了低能耗绿色建筑"被动设计优先,主动技术优化"的设计原则,完善了现行绿色建筑评价标准中对被动式太阳能技术应用的考虑。寄希望于建筑参与者可以理解、应用这个方法在被动式太阳能建筑中的技术评价,以推动建筑可再生能源技术的发展,并有利于建设资源节约型与环境友好型社会。