COLOR PERCEPTION AND FOOD QUALITY1

Color may be the most important sensory attribute of food and as such holds a preeminent position in overall food quality. It effects consumer judgement of other sensory characteristics such as flavor, sweetness and saltiness as well as being an important predictor of nonsensory quality attributes like moisture content, over-processing and pigment content. In order to maximize the use of color as a measure of food quality it is essential to understand the theoretical basis of colorimetry and be able to apply it in a consistent and meaningful way. This approach may be simplified by the use of a quality measurement model which considers the object to be measured, the synthetic and analytical processes of measurement and the use of the analytical process as a predictor of the synthetic process. Such a model allows the application of this important quality tool to almost any food or food production system.     

IRON CONTENT, SENSORY EVALUATION, AND CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF FOOD COOKED IN IRON UTENSILS

The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of cooking food in iron utensils on the iron content, sensory quality, and consumer acceptance/ preference of the food. Hamburger patties and applesauce were cooked in iron and in glass utensils and were analyzed for iron content by atomic absorption spectrophotometry and evaluated by a trained sensory panel, by consumers, and for chroma, pH, and refractometer changes. Cooking hamburger patties and applesauce in iron utensils increased iron in the food, did not affect sensory quality or consumer acceptance/preference of hamburger patties, but affected the color and flavor and decreased consumer acceptance/preference for applesauce.     

COMBINED MEASUREMENT OF FOOD TASTE AND CONSUMER PREFERENCE IN THE INDIVIDUAL: RELIABILITY, PRECISION AND STABILITY DATA

A cognitive theory of quantitative judgment that unites sensory methods into one general type of consumer test is applied to the assessment of individuals' preferences for the level of salt in bread and levels of sugar in a chocolate, a lime drink and a tomato soup. The theory is that each assessor knows rather precisely what levels of sensed characteristics she or he likes in a familiar food or drink and that, in the absence of contextual biases, ratings relative to stable anchor categories of choice behavior are linear with discriminable differences in the described characteristic. Since Weber's difference discrimination ratio is constant over intermediate concentrations of salt and sugar, this implies linear rating against the logarithm of concentrations and such linearity was indeed found in food saltiness and sweetness ratings under conditions of minimal contextual biases on the expression of sensory preference. Also as predicted, a mid-response category of the most acceptable salt or sugar level and two rejection end-categories were used highly consistently as anchors, yielding reliable and precise judgments of tastant level within a biaset minimized multi-sample session. A high repeatability of ratingsfrom one session to the next (and not because of memory effects) confirmed the sensory reliability of this method and provided evidence of temporal stability of food taste preferences. Thus it is feasible to estimate an individual consumer's taste preference characteristics from responses to a few food samples.     

A COMPREHENSIVE FORMULA FOR THE ACCEPTANCE OF FOOD TEXTURE, AND ITS GENERALIZATION TO OVERALL FOOD ACCEPTANCE

A survey is made of factors contributing to food texture (atoms, molecules, structure, mechanics) together with factors leading to food texture acceptance (stimulus-response, preferences), and a formula is developed for the relations among all these factors. An extension to general acceptance, involving all sensory quality factors, is also made.     

CONSUMER FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE AND PRACTICES

Consumer knowledge of safe handling guidelines and their reported practices assessed by a mail survey indicated consumers considered themselves informed about food safety, and most reported taking action to minimize risk from potential hazards. However, most responses were related to nutritional changes, and 20% indicated they did not know how to reduce risks from microbiological hazards. Consumers were knowledgeable about appropriate safeguards in selection and cooking specific foods, however mistakes were reported in temperature control and handling leftovers. Consumer Reports, university scientists, health professionals and science magazines were considered ihe most reliable source of food safety information. Industry advertisement appears to raise consumer concern in some areas. Educational intervention should emphasize the importance of temperature control and sanitation rather than taste to determine safety. Consumers should receive information about protective technologies like heat and irradiation pasteurization.     

FOOD TEXTURE AND TASTE: A REVIEW

The subjective measurement of food texture and the objective measurement based on a rheological model are described to clarify the relationship between texture and taste. The authors suggest that the most important sensory property is texture in foods which have relatively low flavor intensity. Additionally, from the fact that the multidimensional evaluation of palatability of foods is strongly influenced by properties requiring physical measurement, they propose the introduction of a new concept, physical taste, for making effective evaluations of food palatability. More quantitative texture studies related to food quality are required as well as research on the traditional four or five basic tastes.     

PERCEIVED QUALITY OF FOOD PRODUCTS AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO CONSUMER PREFERENCES: THEORY AND MEASUREMENT1

This paper investigates theoretically and empirically the meaning of food quality to consumers and the role perceived food quality plays in the formation of consumer preferences. The empirical study involved the product categories margarine/butter and meat products. Subjects were 1074 Dutch purchasers of foods. As evidenced by the empirical results, perceived quality is a global judgment, pertaining to sensory, instrumental and expressive attributes. It serves as a mediating concept, capturing some (but not all) of the effects of the product dimensions on preference. Inclusion of perceived quality in the model of preference formation leads to a significantly better explanation of preference. However, the mediating role of perceived quality is product specific. The results of the study show that the role perceived quality plays in consumer decision processes is much more important for branded food products than for unbranded products. Further, it is shown in which way the results of such a study can guide food scientists in adapting food products in accordance with consumers' opinions on quality and preference.     

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF GROUND CHICKEN

In a study of marketing opportunities for fresh dark chicken meat, focus group participants (n=34) identified the most important attributes of chicken products and their packaging. Acceptance of chicken ground through various size plates (2.4, 4.7 and 9.4 mm) and containing various concentrations (0, 1 and 2%) of sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) was evaluated by consumers (n=73). STPP concentration was not a significant variable for any of the sensory attributes. Texture ratings increased significantly with grind size. Yield increased with increasing concentration at the 2.4 mm grind size of STPP. A simulated supermarket setting test was conducted to verify findings from a mailed survey (n=115) and actual purchase behavior by consumers (n=121). A calculated desirability index indicated a ranked preference to be: breasts > kabobs > stir-fry > boneless, skinless thighs > scallopini > bone-in, skin-on thighs > ground chicken. The lack of acceptance of ground chicken by consumers suggests that future emphasis should be focused on other dark chicken meat products.     

CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF HONEY MARINATED CHICKEN

Chicken bone-in breast quarters marinated through injection with lemon-pepper poultry marinade containing 20 or 30% honey were compared to that marinated without honey and commercial marinated chicken. The objectives were to determine (1) consumer acceptance and willingness to buy and the amount to pay for marinated chicken and (2) the effect of honey on instrumental measurements of color and texture. Chicken was roasted at 177C for 1 h to an internal endpoint temperature of 80C and evaluated for acceptance by 67 untrained consumers. All experimental test products had similar hedonic ratings for appearance, color, flavor, taste, tenderness, juiciness, and overall liking. All samples, both experimental and commercial, were acceptable, and most consumers would be willing to buy chicken marinated with the formulations used in this study for the same price that they were paying for similar products.     

CONSUMER AWARENESS OF AND ATTITUDES TO FOOD TEXTURE

Abstract Although its awareness appears to be present on a subconscious level, texture plays a very essential role in determining people's feelings about foods. Intensity of flavor, socially and culturally learned expectations, psychological and physiological factors, sex, socio-economic class, image of a food, and eating occasions influence awareness of and attitudes to texture among adult consumers. Texture awareness is increased when expectations are violated, associations are made with non-food items, or unpleasant mouth sensations are experienced. Textural qualities are often linked with whole-someness and excellence of food preparation.     

IRISH AND EUROPEAN CONSUMER VIEWS ON FOOD SAFETY

Results from two consumer surveys are presented. In the first, a EU FAIR (European Union Food, Agriculture and Industrial Research Programme), supported project, three-thousand consumers (500 in each of six countries, Germany, Italy, Britain, Spain, Sweden and Ireland) were surveyed in March 1997 on their attitudes to the quality and safety of three meats, beef, pork and chicken. This paper deals with the safety aspects of the survey. Many consumers in all six countries said they were eating less beef and more chicken. Overall, the Spanish and Irish appeared to be the most concerned about the safety of meat, the British were somewhat less concerned. While many were confident that the food in shops is safe, there was a sizeable minority who believed the contrary. When looking for information on the safety of meat, butchers, whether independent or in supermarkets, are the group most trusted by consumers. In terms of consumer concerns, about 60 percent of beef consumers were very concerned about hormones, BSE (Bovine Spongiform encephalopathy), antibiotics and bacteria. Pork consumers had similar levels of concern as beef consumers about bacteria, antibiotics and hormones. For chicken there was a higher level of concern about bacteria (Salmonella) (68% were very concerned) and similar levels of concern to pork and beef for the other issues. Generally, fat was the issue of least concern for all three meats. Freshness was considered to be relatively the most helpful of 7 factors used for assessing safety of meat. The country of origin and what the animal was fed were also considered to be relatively helpful. Factors considered to be relatively less helpful were price and the name of the producer. In the second study, over 1200 pre-leaving certificate Irish school children participated in autumn 1996 in a national survey assessing young people's attitudes to meat. Half of the respondents agreed with the view that eating beef means increasing the risk of getting CJD (Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease). Those who agreed were more likely to be less frequent eaters of beef and to have reduced their meat consumption in the post-BSE period. It was found also that females were more likely to eat less meat than males and to have reduced beef consumption. The implications of some of the findings of these two surveys are discussed.     

NATIONAL CONSUMER RETAIL BEEF STUDY: INTERACTION OF TRIM LEVEL, PRICE AND GRADE ON CONSUMER ACCEPTANCE OF BEEF STEAKS AND ROASTS

Consumers in San Francisco, California and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA were asked to purchase, in simulated retail markets, beef retail cuts of different grades, Choice versus Select (equivalent to Good), or of different trim levels, Regular Trim (no more than 13 mm of external fat; Philadelphia only), Extra Trim (no more than 8 mm of external fat) or Super Trim (no external fat), all priced at Parity or Premium (Parity plus 10%) prices. Consumers in Philadelphia purchased significantly more Extra Trim and Super Trim steaks and roasts than Regular Trim. At the time of purchase, consumers in both cities could not detect the visual differences in Choice versus Select, but upon eating them found that Choice cuts were better tasting, but also fatter, and that Select cuts were leaner, but had problems with taste and texture. Both Choice and Select were rated high for consumer acceptance, but for different reasons, taste for Choice, leanness for Select.     

CONSUMER AWARENESS OF TEXTURE AND OF OTHER FOOD ATTRIBUTES, II

Abstract. A word association test given to one hundred and fifty respondents drawn from three geographic locations and representing a sample balanced with respect to socio-economic class, sex, and age confirmed the results of a previous test ( Food Technol. 27, 74, 1963) conducted with one hundred General Foods employees. Frequency of free associations indicated that texture is a discernible characteristic of foods and that, in general, its awareness equals that of flavor. Women and people in higher economic brackets showed a higher degree of texture awareness.