Treatment of phenol formaldehyde production wastewater by electrooxidation-electrofenton successive processes

ABSTRACT

Treatments of phenol formaldehyde producing wastewater (PFPW) by electrooxidation (EO) and electro-Fenton (EF) successive processes were carried out in a batch electrolytic reactor using graphite (Gr) and stainless steel (Ss) electrodes. After the completion of the EO process, the wastewater was further treated with EF process. The influence of operating variables such as current density, operating time, initial pH_i and H₂O₂ concentration was evaluated for removals of phenol, TOC and COD in PFPW. Gr/Gr, Gr/Ss or Ss/Ss and Ss/Gr electrode pair were used as anode and cathode. The best removal efficiency in the EO process was obtained with Gr/Gr (93%) as compared to Gr/Ss (82%), Ss/Ss (63%) and Ss/Gr (55%). The removal efficiencies for the EO process using Gr-Gr electrode pair were obtained as 93% for phenol, 61% for COD and 44% for TOC at initial pH_i 7,5 g/L of NaCl, 50 mA/cm² and 5 h. In the EF process, the removal efficiencies at pH_i 3,5 mA/cm² and 30 mM H₂O₂ and 45 min were 100% for phenol, 76% for COD and 59% for TOC. This study provided that the successive processes are an effective method for the removal of phenolic compounds from the wastewater.     

A comparative study of electrocoagulation and electro-Fenton for food industry wastewater treatment: Multiple response optimization and cost analysis

ABSTRACT

In this study, response surface methodology was applied for food wastewater by electrocoagulation (EC) and electro-Fenton (EF) processes. The optimum conditions for the chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal were found to be 21.36 min, pH 10 and 86 mA/cm² in EC, whereas 27.11 min, pH 2.38, 86 mA/cm² and H₂O₂/COD:2 in EF process. COD removal efficiencies were determined to be 29.4% for EC and 59.1% for EF processes and higher than 99% total suspended solids removal efficiencies were achieved. It can be concluded that high COD removal was obtained (4998 mg/L COD removal by EC and 10,047 mg/L COD removal by EF).     

Electrochemical process for 2,4-D herbicide removal from aqueous solutions using stainless steel 316 and graphite Anodes: optimization using response surface methodology

In this experimental study, an electrochemical cell (100 cc) equipped with anode electrodes of SS316 and graphite and the cathode electrode of SS316 in parallel form at a distance of 1 cm from each other was used to degradation the 2,4-Diclorophenoxy acetic acid (2,4-D) herbicide. The results showed that the removal efficiency of 2,4-D herbicide in initial concentrations of 50 and 100 mg/L under optimum conditions (pH = 7, electrolysis time = 50 min and current density = 3 mA/cm²) using the graphite anode electrode was 73.5% and 47.76%, respectively; however, using the SS316 electrode, the removal efficiency was 44.23% and 17.65%, respectively. The highest removal of 2,4-D in electrochemical process was 95.87% for herbicide initial concentration of 50 mg/L by graphite anode electrode. Considering the efficiency of 2,4-D removal, the determined coefficients were found to be 0.91–0.93. The amount of energy consumed for SS316 and graphite electrodes was obtained to be 6.308 and 5.99 kWh/m³, respectively. Results revealed that the electrochemical process with graphite anode electrode has an acceptable efficiency in removing the 2,4-D herbicide and can be used as an appropriate pretreatment in treating the wastewater containing the resistant compounds such as phenoxy group herbicides (2,4-D).     

Container washing wastewater treatment by combined electrocoagulation–electrooxidation

Treatment of container washing wastewater (CWW) by using combined electrocoagulation (EC)–electrooxidation (EO) process was studied. CWW contains many organic compounds such as surfactants used in cleaning agents. Wastewater was first treated by EC with iron (Fe) and aluminum (Al) electrodes. The process performance was measured according to the removal efficiencies of soluble chemical oxygen demand (sCOD) and color. Maximum sCOD removal efficiency was found 82% and color removal efficiencies were 95%, 95% and 98% at 436, 525 and 620 nm, respectively, with Fe electrodes under 25 mA/cm² current density, initial pH of 5 and 120-min operation time. Because of the low sCOD removal efficiency, EO was used as post-treatment process by using boron doped diamond electrode (BDD). sCOD removal efficiency was increased to 89% and color removal efficiencies decreased to 72%, 64%, 71% at 436, 525 and 620 nm, respectively, under 25 mA/cm² current density, initial pH of 3 and 300-min operation time. This study showed that electrochemical processes caused new complex molecules formation in the CWW, which caused deterioration of water color and limited the process efficiency.     

Degradation study of some pharmaceuticals in commercial formulation by electro-Fenton process using a dimensionally stable anode cathode: Analytical technique,optimization conditions,and energy consumption

The aim of this work was to degrade pharmaceuticals such as amoxicillin (AMX), ceftriaxone (CTX), and Telebrix (TLX) by electro-Fenton (EF) process using a dimensionally stable anode (DSA) cathode, Pt-RuO₂-IrO₂ (PRI). For this purpose, the optimal conditions of degradation, the pseudo-first-order kinetics, the current efficiency, the electrochemical energy consumption (EEC), and the energy cost have been investigated. A spectrophotometric analysis technique has been developed. It is a simple, fast, linear, reliable, and selective technique with LOD = 0.013 g/L and LOQ = 0.04 g/L. The optimum working conditions determined are: Fe²⁺ = 0.2 mM, pH = 3, j = 20 mA/cm², and (Pt, PRI) as electrode pair. Under these conditions, the EF process leads to a conversion of the parent compound. In addition, the degradation of compounds by EF follows pseudo-first-order kinetics. The EEC for the degradation of 1 kg COD of an organic compound is 99.48, 66.86, and 50.32 kWh kg COD⁻¹ for AMX, CTX, and TLX respectively. The energy cost for processing these compounds is $4.92 (AMX), $10.03 (CTX), and $7.55 (TLX) with current efficiencies between 26% and 51%. Ultimately, the EF process using PRI at the cathode can be used for the treatment of real wastewater from health centres under optimal conditions.     

The effect of pulsed electric field on drying kinetics,color, and microstructure of carrot

The aim of the study was to investigate the impact of pulsed electric field (PEF) treatment on the convective drying kinetics of a carrot and color and microstructure changes of the dried product. Samples were treated by PEF with the specific energy input equal to 5.63, 8 and 80 kJ · kg^?1. After PEF treatment, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity were measured. Drying time of the PEF-treated samples was reduced up to 8.2% (W_s = 8 kJ · kg^?1, 5 kV · cm^?1; 10 pulses) in comparison to intact tissue. Statistical analysis showed that Midilli et al.’s model was considered to describe the kinetics of the process the most precisely. Pulsed electric field treatment increased the effective water diffusion coefficient up to 16.7%. Moreover, PEF treatment and drying caused the alteration of the sample color. After drying, the lightness and chroma were higher or unchanged in comparison to the intact tissue. The dried PEF-treated samples exhibited significantly higher redness (higher value of a^* parameter) in comparison to the untreated dried samples. Moreover, the visual inspection of scanning electron microscope images revealed that PEF pretreatment performed at high electric field intensity (5 kV · cm^?1, regardless of pulse number) provoked the material to form greater cavities during drying in comparison to the untreated material.     

PREPARATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF ANODIC ALUMINUM OXIDE FILMS EXHIBITING MICROPOROSITY

Anodic alumina materials exhibiting regular pore structure, microporosity, and extensive surface areas were prepared and characterized. The effects of current density, (J = 12–35 mA/cm²), anodization time (t = 30–150 min), and hydrothermal treatment on pore structure were investigated. Nitrogen sorption hysteresis was simulated using the corrugated pore structure model (CPSM). Pore size distributions, relative specific surface area (S_CPSM/S_ext = 870–8645), microporosity (max ～ 33.0%), pore tortuosity (T_CPSM = 3.1–5.7), pore connectivity (c = 3.02–4.85, Seaton's model), and nominal pore length values (i.e., N_s = 3–10, from CPSM, and L = 0.91–1.20, Seaton) were evaluated. Pore sizes d_pore > 13 nm deduced via CPSM simulation of gas sorption data were also detected by SEM imaging. A minimum external surface pore density of ～ 7.5 × 10¹⁰ pores/cm² was evaluated from the SEM micrograph. Anodization conditions and the following treatment caused a severe pore structure change. Pore tortuosity (T_CPSM) changes inversely proportionally to pore connectivity (c), while the nominal pore length (N_s) varies proportionally to the number of pore length (L). It is concluded that materials possessing microporosity, regular pore architectures, and high surface areas can become potential candidate membranes for gas separation and catalytic reaction applications. They can also be used as templates in electrochemical applications (e.g., solar and fuel cells).     

The Influence of Temperature and Composition on the Operation of Al Anodes for Aluminum‐Air Batteries

The influence of composition and temperature on the anode polarization and corrosion rate of pure Al and Al‐In anodic alloys in 8M NaON electrolyte has been investigated. High current density (more than 800 mA cm⁻²) and faradaic efficiency over 97% were observed for all investigated alloys at 60 °C. Lower temperature provides lower current density (200–300 mA cm⁻² at 40 °C, and less than 100 mA cm⁻² at 25 °C). Different formation of the product reaction layers was observed for pure aluminum and Al–0.41In alloy, leading to the different polarization character of the samples. The comparison of two Al‐In alloys with similar composition has been carried out. Al–0.45In alloy having a coarse‐grained structure had a more positive no‐current potential and lower value of anode limiting current (200 mA cm⁻² vs. 300 mA cm⁻²) compared with the fine‐grained Al–0.41In alloy, as well as greater parasitic corrosion rate and greater no‐current corrosion. The current‐voltage, power and discharge characteristics of the aluminum‐air cell with Al–0.41In anode and gas diffusion cathode have been investigated. Open circuit voltage of the cell is 1.934 V and the maximum power density of the cell is 240 mW cm⁻² at the voltage of 1.3 V.     

BDD anodic oxidation as tertiary wastewater treatment for the removal of emerging micro‐pollutants,pathogens and organic matter

This work reports for the first time the removal of 17α‐ethynylestradiol (EE2), a synthetic estrogen hormone, from secondary treated effluents by electrochemical oxidation. Experiments were conducted in a single compartment reactor comprising a boron‐doped diamond (BDD) anode and a zirconium cathode. EE2, in the range 100–800 µg L^?1, was spiked in the post‐chlorination effluent of a municipal treatment plant and oxidized at 0.9–2.6 mA cm^?2 current density. Complete degradation of 100 µg L^?1 EE2 was achieved in 7 min at 2.1 mA cm^?2 and inherent conditions, while the addition of 0.1 mol L^?1 NaCl achieved removal in just a few seconds. The process was then tested in the pre‐chlorination effluent at 2.1 mA cm^?2 and inherent conditions; complete E. coli killing and EE2 removal occurred in just 1.5 and 3.5 min, respectively, while overall estrogenicity (assessed by the YES assay) and residual organic matter (in terms of chemical oxygen demand (COD)) decreased by 50% and 85% after 30 min, respectively. These results clearly show the potential of BBD electrochemical oxidation to serve as an efficient tertiary wastewater treatment. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

ELECTROCHEMICAL RECOVERY OF CHLORINE AND HYDROGEN FROM HYDROGEN CHLORIDE BY-PRODUCT PRODUCED IN THE PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY

Simultaneous production of hydrogen as an energy carrier and chlorine as a valuable chemical from recycled hydrogen chloride was investigated employing a lab-scale membrane electrolysis setup. The effects of various process parameters including current density (1–4 kA m^?2), cell temperature (45°–75°C), flow rate of hydrochloric acid feed (200–500 mL min^?1), and concentration of acid (18–21 wt.%) on the cell voltage and chlorine current efficiency (ChCE) were studied. The Taguchi design of experiments (L₁₆ array) was employed to design the minimum number of experiments necessary to fully study the process. A filter press type cell of 10 cm² surface area comprising a DSA anode, an alloy of predominantly nickel cathode and Nafion 115 membrane, was used. It was observed that increasing anolyte flow rate, anolyte concentration, or cell temperature caused a decrease in cell voltage and an increase in ChCE, while increasing current density linearly increased cell voltage and decreased ChCE.     

Optimization of pulsed electric field pretreatment parameters for preserving the quality of Raphanus sativus

Pulsed electric field (PEF) pretreatment can increase the drying rate of produce, but preserving product quality while minimizing energy consumption and maintaining food quality is a significant challenge. The goal of this study was to determine optimal PEF parameters for pretreatment of Raphanus sativus (radish) prior to the drying process. The effects of pulse intensity, treatment time, and pulse number on the drying rate, vitamin C (Vc) content, and ascorbic acid oxidase activity of R. sativus were characterized. Optimal PEF pulse parameter values were determined through quadratic orthogonal regression tests followed by multi-objective nonlinear optimization. The optimal PEF pulse parameters for pretreatment of R. sativus were: pulse intensity, 1446 V · cm^?1; reaction time, 28 μs; and pulse number, 87. This study provides reference values to guide application of PEF pretreatment in R. sativus processing.     

The mechanism and application of the electro‐Fenton process for azo dye Acid Red 14 degradation using an activated carbon fibre felt cathode

BACKGROUND: The discharge of azo dyes into the environment poses concerns due to their limited biodegradability. The electro‐Fenton process (EF) is a good method to effectively degrade these dyes. The aim of this work was to study the mechanism and the feasibility of the EF reaction using an activated carbon fibre (ACF) cathode. In this study, two methods were used to measure the reactive species generated in anodic oxidation (AO), anodic oxidation with electrogenerated H₂O₂ (AO‐H₂O₂) and the EF process. Acid Red 14 (AR14) was chosen as a model pollutant. The effects of the operational parameters, pH and initial concentrations were investigated. A short‐term biodegradability test was also carried out to evaluate the EF process from a biological point of view. RESULTS: After 2 h EF reaction 118.7 µmol L^?1?OH were produced, which was much higher than that of the AO‐H₂O₂ (63.2 µmol L^?1) process. H₂O₂ is largely generated and Fe³⁺ efficiently reduced on the high surface area of the ACF cathode. The EF process provides more effective degradation of AR14 than the conventional Fenton process, and its current efficiency is significantly affected by the initial pH and the initial AR14 concentration. Following EF treatment, the biodegradability of AR14 is significantly increased. CONCLUSION: The higher formation of ^?OH in the EF process suggests it is an effective method for pollutant removal. This process also leads to increased biodegradability, which is expected to facilitate subsequent biological treatment. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry     

Drying Kinetics of Apple Tissue Treated by Pulsed Electric Field

The aim of this work was to study the influence of pulsed electric field (PEF) on the drying kinetics of apple tissue. Therefore, mathematical models that are commonly used in the literature were applied to describe the process. PEF treatment of the samples was carried out at an intensity of E = 5–10 kV/cm and 10–50 pulse numbers. Subsequently, the apples were convectively dried at 70°C and air velocity of 2 m/s. Based on electrical conductivity measurement, the cell disintegration index Z _p was computed. Midilli et al.'s(Drying Technology, Vol. 20, pp. 1503–1513, 2001) model was evaluated as the most adequate to describe the moisture transfer in PEF-treated and intact samples. PEF pretreatment induced a reduction in drying time of up to 12% when 10 kV/cm and 50 pulses were applied. For instance, after 60 min of drying, the dimensionless moisture ratio for PEF-treated (10 kV/cm, 50 pulses) samples was 0.18 compared to 0.26 for the untreated apples. The effective moisture diffusivity, calculated on the basis of the Fick's second law, was 1.04 × 10^?9 m/s for intact samples and from 1.09 × 10^?9 to 1.25 × 10^?9 m²/s for PEF-treated samples at 10 pulses at 5 kV/cm and 50 pulses at 10 kV/cm, respectively.     

A New Type of Sulfobetaine Surfactant with Double Alkyl Polyoxyethylene Ether Chains for Enhanced Oil Recovery

A new type of sulfobetaine with double alkyl polyoxyethylene (n) ether chains, dicoconut oil alcohol polyoxethylene (n) ether methylhydroxylpropyl sulfobetaine (diC_12–14E _n HSB) was synthesized using a commercial nonionic surfactant, coconut oil alcohol polyoxethylene (n) ether, as raw material and its properties as a surfactant for enhanced oil recovery (EOR) in the absence of alkali was studied. The purified product is a mixture of homologues with mainly C₁₂/C₁₂, C₁₂/C₁₄ and C₁₄/C₁₄ alkyl chains and widely distributed EO chains (n = 2.2 on average) with an average molar mass of 742.6 g/mol. The diC_12–14E_2.2HSB has an improved aqueous solubility at 25 °C compared with didodecylmethylhydroxylpropyl sulfobetaine (diC₁₂HSB), a homologue without an EO chain, and is highly surface active as reflected by its low CMC (4.6 × 10^?6 mol/L), high saturated adsorption (6.8 × 10^?10 mol/cm²) and small cross sectional area (0.24 nm²/molec.) at the air/water interface. With a hydrophile–lipophile balance well matched with Daqing crude oil/connate water system, the sulfobetaine can reduce Daqing crude oil/connate water interfacial tension to ultra-low values at 45 °C in the absence of alkali, and displays a low saturated adsorption at the sandstone/water interface (0.0024 mmol/g), reduced by 69 and 92 % respectively in comparison with that of the corresponding carboxyl betaine, diC_12–14E_2.2B and its homologue without an EO chain, didodecylmethylcarboxyl betaine (diC₁₂B). With these excellent properties diC_12–14E_2.2HSB gives a high tertiary recovery, 18.4 % original oil in place, when mixed with other hydrophobic and hydrophilic sulfobetaines in surfactant-polymer (SP) flooding free of alkali. The insertion of EO chains in combination with the replacement of carboxyl betaine by sulfobetaine is therefore very efficient for improving the properties of the double chain hydrophobic carboxyl betaines as surfactants for SP flooding free of alkali.     

The Effect of Methanol Crossover on the Cathode Overpotential of DMFCs

The effects of methanol crossover on cathode overpotential of direct methanol fuel cells (DMFCs) were investigated by focusing on a mixed potential effect and surface poisoning of the catalyst. Experiments using different membranes and catalyst loadings were performed and compared with a semi‐quantitative model to discuss the main cause of the cathode overpotential. When the measured methanol crossover increased, cathode overpotential increased at particular threshold values, which were 150 mA cm^–2 at 0.3 mg cm^–2 of cathode platinum (Pt) loading and above 200 mA cm^–2 at 1.1 mg cm^–2. The modelling results also supported this tendency, and showed that Pt surface was poisoned to a great extent above the threshold methanol crossover where the cathode overpotential increased sharply, while the cathode overpotential remained low and was explained solely by the mixed potential below the threshold value. The threshold methanol crossover can be regarded as the acceptable value, below which the cathode overpotential from methanol crossover remains low, and was related with the Pt loading in the cathode. The reduction of methanol crossover through membranes below the acceptable values will contribute greatly to a decrease in the cathode overpotential and to the reduction of catalyst loadings.     

Treatment of Biodiesel Wastewater by Combined Electroflotation and Electrooxidation Processes

The objective of this research was to determine the optimum conditions for biodiesel wastewater treatment using a combined electroflotation and electrooxidation process in a bench-scale reactor. The effects of current density, conductivity, and reaction time were studied and optimized. The experimental results show that electroflotation (pre-treatment) could effectively remove turbidity, total solids, oils and greases, chemical oxygen demand and methanol by 92%, 98%, 100%, 57%, and 23%, respectively, using aluminum electrodes and applying a current density of 8.0 mA cm^?2 for a reaction time of 60 min. After pre-treating, the effluent was subjected to electrooxidation using Ti/RuO₂ anodes. The efficiency of the applied current density and reaction time were evaluated and optimized. The experimental results shows that electrooxidation could effectively remove the residual methanol and chemical oxygen demand by 68% and 95%, respectively, by applying a current density of 40.0 mA cm^?2 for a reaction time of 240 min.     

Applied of central composite design for the optimization of removal yield of the ketoprofen (KTP) using electrocoagulation process

ABSTRACT

In this paper, the modeling and the optimization of the removal efficiency of ketoprofen (KTP) by the electrocoagulation process were studied. The central composite design experiments (CCD) method was used to study the main effects and the interaction effects between operational parameters and to optimize the value of each parameter. According to the regression equation obtained, the current density appears to be one of the most important parameters (b₂ = +22.11) controlling the removal efficiency of KTP. The positive sign of b₂ coefficient suggests that the increase of current density increases the yield of removal. The second signi?cant parameter with a negative effect was the initial KTP concentration (b₃ = ?16.27). This result suggests that the removal efficiency was inversely proportional to the initial concentration. In addition, according to the model, the most influencing interactions were pH-current density, pH-initial concentration, and current density-initial concentration. The model obtained by CCD led to the following optimal conditions for KTP removal e?ciency (96.70%): pH = 7, i = 24.04 mA cm^?2, and C₀ = 5 mg L^?1.     

Preparation, Crystal Structure and Magnetic Properties of Two 1,2-Di(4-pyridyl)ethylene-Bridged Manganese(II) Complexes

Two polymeric carboxylato-bridged manganese(II) complexes, $ {}_{\infty }^{1} $ ∞ 1 [Mn(bpe)(NBA)₂] (1) and $ {}_{\infty }^{1} $ ∞ 1 [Mn(bpe)(MBA)₂] (2) (bpe = 1,2-di(4-pyridyl)ethylene; HNBA = m-nitrobenzoic acid; HMBA = m-methyl-benzoic acid), were synthesized and characterized. Compounds 1 and 2 are isostructural. X-ray diffraction studies show that the title compounds possess a double chain structure. The chains in 1 and 2 are assembled into 2-D layers via C–H···O hydrogen bonds interactions. Furthermore, owing to the offset face-to-face π–π stacking interactions, the adjacent 2-D layers embed into each other to form a 3-D supramolecular framework. Variable-temperature (2–300 K) magnetic susceptibility measurements show the presence of weak antiferromagnetic interactions between the high-spin Mn(II) (S = 5/2) ions through a carboxylato bridge with the best fit parameters for 1 being J = ?0.13 cm^?1, zJ′ = ?0.098 cm^?1 and for 2, J = ?0.33 cm^?1, zJ′ = ?0.001 cm^?1.     

Investigation of poly(methyl acrylate) grafted chitosan as a polymeric drug carrier

The graft copolymerization of methyl acrylate (MA) onto chitosan in aqueous medium was investigated using potassium persulfate (KPS) as initiator. The grafting conditions were optimized by studying the effects of the polymerization variables (the initiator concentration, the ratio of monomer to chitosan, and reaction temperature) on the percentage of grafting (PG). PG was found to depend on these variables, and the highest grafting percentage (256 %) could be obtained at chitosan = 1 g, KPS = 4.5 × 10^?3 M, methyl acrylate monomer = 6 g, T = 60 °C and t = 180 min. The graft copolymer was characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectra analysis, thermogravimetry (differential thermogravimetry, differential scanning calorimetric), X-ray powder diffraction as well as CP-MAS ¹³C NMR spectroscopy. These analyses are highly confirmed the formation of poly(methyl acrylate) grafted chitosan (PMAGC). Furthermore, the gelation of the grafted polymers (PG 68, 122, 218 and 256 %) in distilled water has been studied, and the results revealed that the percentage of swelling number increase with increasing PG of the polymers. Controlled release of niacin (vitamin B₃) from the hydrogel of the grafted polymers (PG 68, 122 and 256 %) in aqueous medium has been studied using ultraviolet absorption to follow quantities released at different times (for each experiment: PMAGC 100 mg, niacin 2.46 mg, distilled water 100 ml). The study was repeated again with same conditions except the using of 4.92 mg of niacin instead of 2.46 mg (PG of the grafted polymer is 256 %). The diffusion coefficient (D, cm²/h) of niacin from the hydrogel of the grafted polymer (PG 256 %) was calculated depending on Higuchi model (diffusion coefficient of the first load is 0.00194 cm²/h while 0.00255 cm²/h of the second load).     

Improved electrochemical performances of sulfur-microporous carbon composite electrode for Li/S battery

A sulfur-microporous (S-MIP) carbon composite was prepared for use as a cathode for rechargeable Li/S batteries. Two sulfur-embedded methods, S-impregnation (IS) and S-liquefied pore filling (LS), were applied for the preparation of the S-MIP carbon composites. The pristine elemental S of the polycrystalline α-S₈ undergoes a structural change to an amorphous-S (a-S) structure in the S-MIP carbon composite created by the IS method. During sulfur loading of 40–50 wt %, the S-MIP carbon composite created by the IS method showed a BET SSA value of around 500 m² g^?1 and a pore volume of 0.2 cm³ g^?1. However, after the LS process was applied to the S-MIP carbon composite, at 160 °C and 10 h, the a-S structure in the S-MIP carbon composite became recrystalline α-S₈. Little remained of the porosity in the S-MIP carbon composite prepared by the LS method due to the large portion of the S crystalline phase. The best discharge capacity was obtained with an S-MIP carbon composite created by the IS method, with the result of 680 mA h g^?1 after 50 cycles at 0.1 °C, i.e., ~47 % higher than that by the LS method.