Acoustic emission during quench training of superconducting accelerator magnets

Acoustic emission (AE) sensing is a viable tool for superconducting magnet diagnostics. Using in-house developed cryogenic amplified piezoelectric sensors, we conducted AE studies during quench training of the US LARP’s high-field quadrupole HQ02 and the LBNL’s high-field dipole HD3. For both magnets, AE bursts were observed, with spike amplitude and frequency increasing toward the quench current during current up-ramps. In the HQ02, the AE onset upon current ramping is distinct and exhibits a clear memory of the previously-reached quench current (Kaiser effect). On the other hand, in the HD3 magnet the AE amplitude begins to increase well before the previously-reached quench current (felicity effect), suggesting an ongoing progressive mechanical motion in the coils. A clear difference in the AE signature exists between the untrained and trained mechanical states in HD3. Time intervals between the AE signals detected at the opposite ends of HD3 coils were processed using a combination of narrow-band pass filtering; threshold crossing and correlation algorithms, and the spatial distributions of AE sources and the mechanical energy release were calculated. Both distributions appear to be consistent with the quench location distribution. Energy statistics of the AE spikes exhibits a power-law scaling typical for the self-organized critical state.     

Acoustic emission monitoring results from the MFTF magnets

A technique for monitoring disturbances using acoustic emission (AE) in superconducting magnets was applied to the superconducting yin-yang magnet pair for the Mirror Fusion Test Facility (MFTF-B) at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL). Signals from twelve AE sensors mounted on the magnet were recorded during magnet charging tests.A minicomputer-based signal processing technique was then developed for real-time AE event detection, location, and characterization. Acoustic emission events caused by movement of conductors in the energized magnet windings or by structural disturbances such as epoxy cracking and debonding could be identified. The data recorded from the MFTF tests were then analysed.The results showed a wide range of AE activity detected by the sensors. Activity from structure and conductor motion showed different behaviour with increasing magnet current. Sensors mounted in the small radius regions of the magnet exhibited the highest levels of activity, agreeing with analysis of maximum loads and independent magnet voltage monitoring results.     

Design of epoxy-free superconducting dipole magnets and performance in both Helium I and pressurized Helium II

Three model superconducting dipole magnet 1m long, without iron, having a bore diameter of 76 mm have been built without epoxy resins or other adhesives and tested in He I and He II. The conductor is the 23-strand Rutherford-type cable used in the Fermilab Doubler Saver magnets, and is insulated with Mylar and Kapton. The two-layer winding is highly compressed by a system of structural support rings and tapered collets. Little "training" was required to reach quench currents greater than 95 percent of "short sample" in Helium I. The maximum quench current in He II is increased 20 to 30 percent, compared with He I operation at 4.4 K. Test results are given on cyclic losses, heater-induced quenches, and charge-rate effects.     

Electric current and heat induced acoustic emission in cadmium sulfide

Acoustic emission (AE) induced by the electric current passing through a cadmium sulfide (CdS) single crystal was studied. In the temperature range T=300–450 K, the intensity of the AE signals excited in the CdS crystal exposed to a constant electric field increases with the current density. It is suggested that AE in CdS is due to the dislocations breaking off and moving under the action of direct electric current and thermoelastic stresses. The activation energy for this process (E _a=0.35±0.5 eV) was estimated for a current density in the range of j=(1−7)×10⁵ A/m².     

ITER Side Correction Coil Quench model and analysis

Previous thermohydraulic studies performed for the ITER TF, CS and PF magnet systems have brought some important information on the detection and consequences of a quench as a function of the initial conditions (deposited energy, heated length). Even if the temperature margin of the Correction Coils is high, their behavior during a quench should also be studied since a quench is likely to be triggered by potential anomalies in joints, ground fault on the instrumentation wires, etc. A model has been developed with the SuperMagnet Code (Bagnasco et al., 2010) for a Side Correction Coil (SCC2) with four pancakes cooled in parallel, each of them represented by a Thea module (with the proper Cable In Conduit Conductor characteristics). All the other coils of the PF cooling loop are hydraulically connected in parallel (top/bottom correction coils and six Poloidal Field Coils) are modeled by Flower modules with equivalent hydraulics properties. The model and the analysis results are presented for five quench initiation cases with/without fast discharge: two quenches initiated by a heat input to the innermost turn of one pancake (case 1 and case 2) and two other quenches initiated at the innermost turns of four pancakes (case 3 and case 4). In the 5th case, the quench is initiated at the middle turn of one pancake. The impact on the cooling circuit, e.g. the exceedance of the opening pressure of the quench relief valves, is detailed in case of an undetected quench (i.e. no discharge of the magnet). Particular attention is also paid to a possible secondary quench detection system based on measured thermohydraulic signals (pressure, temperature and/or helium mass flow rate). The maximum cable temperature achieved in case of a fast current discharge (primary detection by voltage) is compared to the design hot spot criterion of 150 K, which includes the contribution of helium and jacket.     

Quench simulation results for a 12-T twin-aperture dipole magnet

A 12-T twin-aperture subscale dipole magnet is being developed for SPPC pre-study at the Institute of High Energy Physics (IHEP). The magnet is comprised of 6 double-pancake coils which include 2 Nb₃Sn coils and 4 NbTi coils. As the stored energy of the magnet is 0.452 MJ and the operation margin is only about 20% at 4.2 K, a quick and effective quench protection system is necessary during the test of this high field magnet. For the design of the quench protection system, attention was not only paid to the hotspot temperature and terminal voltage, but also the temperature gradient during the quench process due to the poor mechanical characteristics of the Nb₃Sn cables. With the adiabatic analysis, numerical simulation and the finite element simulation, an optimized protection method is adopted, which contains a dump resistor and quench heaters. In this paper, the results of adiabatic analysis and quench simulation, such as current decay, hot-spot temperature and terminal voltage are presented in details.     

Acceptance testing of graphite /epoxy composite parts using an acoustic emission monitoring technique

A graphite/epoxy composite dome was proof-tested by pressurization. Acoustic emission (AE) data was obtained during the proof test. A low-frequency bandpass was used to minimize AE signal propagation losses. The AE system and test part were calibrated in situ by an instrumented pencil-lead break. Large energy AE signals provide a clear indication of a flawed composite part.     

The mechanism of frictional motion and its effects at 4.2 K in superconducting magnet winding models

Frictional sliding occurs on both a microscopic and a macroscopic scale. Sliding on a microscopic scale appears as discrete events called microslips. Microslips are inherent in all sliding events and are quite different from macroscopic instabilities such as stick-slips. It is thought that the training effect observed in quench current data from a superconducting braid may be caused by microslips.The mechanisms of sliding motion and its effects at 4.2 K were studied in detail for a number of metal/insulator pairs that model superconducting magnet windings; the results impact the performance of superconducting magnets. Organic surface coating materials are generally effective in eliminating macroscopic instabilities. Instrumentation used in these experiments includes a high-resolution extensometer and an acoustic emission sensor, both with sensitivities capable of detecting microslips (～ 1 μm).     

声发射技术在三维编织C/SiC复合材料拉伸损伤分析中的应用

通过声发射技术(Acoustic Emission简称AE)对三维编织C/SiC复合材料试件单向拉伸实验过程进行全程动态监测,利用声发射特征参数的综合分析法揭示了三维编织C/SiC复合材料单向拉伸时损伤演化过程和规律。实验结果表明三维编织C/SiC复合材料单向拉伸时损伤发展的四个阶段及声发射特性并利用声发射相对能量定义了材料临界损伤强度。     

压缩载荷下陶瓷材料声发射特性的实验研究

对陶瓷材料在两种压缩加载下破坏过程中的声发射特性进行实验研究。三点弯曲和巴西劈裂实验中,采用多通道声发射系统监测了陶瓷试件的破坏过程。对声发射信号进行分析,结果表明,声发射能量数、事件数、振铃数等参数都反映了材料内部损伤演化扩展直至试件宏观断裂的过程。利用声发射参数可以定位陶瓷试件的破坏位置;试件断面的宏细观分析表明,陶瓷的脆性破坏机制主要是颗粒附近的微裂纹开裂。     

Guidelines for LTS magnet design based on transient stability

Stabilities of low critical temperature superconducting (LTS) magnets and their designs are studied and discussed. There are two contradictory necessities; those are low cost and high performance, in the other words, high magnetic field and large current density. Especially, the maximum magnetic fields of the latest high performance Nb₃Sn magnets are around 20 T. Mentioned necessities result in the small stability margins. Needless to say, the superconducting magnet must produce its nominal field reliably. Therefore, maintaining adequate stability margin, the magnet design to draw out the high potential of the superconductor is required. The transient stability of the superconducting magnet is determined by the relationship between mechanical disturbance energy and stability margin. The minimum quench energy (MQE) is one of the index of stability margin and it is defined as the minimum energy to trigger quenching of a superconductor. MQE should be beyond any possible disturbance energy during the operation. It is difficult to identify the mechanical disturbance energy quantitatively. On the contrary, MQE had been evaluated precisely by means of our developed resistive carbon paste heater (CPH). At the same time, we can predict MQE by numerical simulations. Because the magnet comes to quench if the mechanical disturbance exceeds the MQE, the disturbance energies are suspected to be equivalent to MQEs during the magnet-training. When we achieved somewhat larger MQE, we may exclude numbers of training quenches.In this paper, we discuss the guidelines of LTS magnet design from the standpoint of MQE. We represent some case studies for various superconducting magnets and/or some different winding methods.     

Rapid evaluation of fatigue limit in AZ31B magnesium alloy using acoustic emission

Acoustic emission (AE) was used in a fatigue experiment to characterise AE signals and to rapidly determine the fatigue limit of AZ31B magnesium (Mg) alloy. The AE signals during fatigue were characterised according to waveforms and frequency. Meanwhile, the energy dissipation in the process of fatigue, which was represented by the accumulative AE energy, can be used to determine the fatigue limit. Based on the AE parameters, the fatigue limit was 97?MPa, with an 8% error value when compared with the results obtained by the conventional S–N curve method. This model only requires the accumulated energy of the signals during strain hardening. Therefore, the fatigue limit can be determined rapidly.     

Schallemissionsmessungen beim Rißfortschritt in Stahl unter statischer Belastung

Acoustic emission evaluation of the crack growth in a steel under static loading. A method for evaluation of the crack growth as a function of stress intensity factor K_I by the acoustic emission signals (AE) of statically loaded high-strength steels has been developed and verified. Prismatic 38HN3MFA steel specimens have been used under three-point bending with simultaneous record of the AE signals. According to the AE data the crack start, its parameters and propagation stages have been defined. It has been shown that the maximum increment in the crack area is observed as the stress intensity factor approaches its maximum value.     

Coupled transient thermal and electromagnetic finite element analysis of quench in MICE coupling magnet

The superconducting coupling magnet used for the international Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment (MICE) will be passively protected through coil subdivision and quench back simultaneously. The design of such type quench protection system requires detailedly understanding of the heat transfer and electromagnetic process in the magnet during quench process. A coupled transient thermal and electromagnetic finite element model was developed to study the quench process of the coupling magnet. This model sequentially solves two different physics environments, one is thermal physics environment and the other one is coupled-electromagnetic-circuit physics environment. The two environments are coupled by applying results from one environment as loads in another one. The results such as current, hot spot temperature, resistance and over voltage during quench process are presented. The results of this model were compared with that of a semi-empirical model, and the respective advantages of both models were pointed out. The quench propagation process in the coupling magnet and the effect of the quench back on the speeding up the quench process were analyzed. The goal of such work is to predict the quench evolution of the coupling magnet in detail and guide its protection scheme.     

The role of quench back in quench protection of a superconducting solenoid

This report demonstrates the role of quench back in the quench protection of high current density superconducting solenoid magnets with well-coupled shorted secondary circuits. The phenomenon of ‘quench back’ can be used to greatly reduce the size of an external quench protection resistor or even to eliminate the need for an external quench protection system altogether. A comparison is made with conventional magnet quench protection systems with and without a closely coupled secondary circuit.     

Experimental simulation of helium pressure rise during a quench of a superconducting coil cooled by a superfluid helium bath

Experimental and numerical studies have been conducted with the aim of modeling pressure rises which occur in the helium, during quenches of the 11.7-T superconducting magnet named Iseult. Iseult is based on a double-pancake winding internally cooled by superfluid helium channels opening into a pressurized He II bath at 1.8 K. A scale mock-up has been built of 10 copper equivalent pancake slices and 7 helium channels per pancake. The heat produced by a quench of the Iseult magnet is simulated by electrical heaters put inside each copper plate. Cryogenic pressure and temperature sensors have been fitted in the helium channels and in the bath. Bath pressure measurements are given for various heating powers, various numbers of heated plates and various bath volumes. Comparisons with a simple numerical model permit to identify the main physical mechanisms which drive the pressure rise during a quench.     

Thermal stability of high current density magnets

The stabilization theories hitherto proposed for superconducting (SC) magnets are not fully developed for application to high current density magnets such as pulsed dipole magnets for a synchrotron. Hence, thermal stability in such high current density magnets is studied by obtaining a minimum energy of thermal disturbances which barely leads a magnet to quench. To find the minimum energy by calculation a dynamic simulation of temperature distribution along a conductor is carried out following an application of the disturbances on the conductor. The minimum energy is found to depend largely on time duration and spatial length of the disturbances. The values of the minimum energy given by calculation agree almost with the experimental results obtained for a coil which simulates a pulsed dipole magnet from the viewpoint of cooling. Discussion is also made in relation to the minimum energy on the performance of a pancake type solenoid magnet which has the same cooling as in the simulating coil.     

Nondestructive Techniques for Studying Fracture Processes in Concrete

Some laboratory nondestructive evaluation techniques have been invaluable in studying fracture processes in concrete. Several nondestructive evaluation methods including acoustic emission (AE), computer vision, digital speckle pattern interferometry (DSPI), and X-ray microtomography (XMT) were used to examine the fracture behavior of concrete in tension and compression. Acoustic emission testing was used in an attempt to characterize the fracture properties of individual microcracks. As the specimens were loaded, AE waveform data was recorded, and analyzed for source location and source characterization. While DSPI analysis is limited to the specimen surface, the resolution is detailed such that microcracks on the order of 0.25 μm can be detected. Computer vision is a very useful method to measure crack openings for multiple crack development. It also can be used in conjunction with a hydraulic testing machine, which often generates vibration problem for some sensitive techniques. Crack patterns in cement-based materials under various material compositions and testing conditions are examined. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Numerical simulation on the acoustic emission activities of concrete

Acoustic emission (AE) is a very important tool to study the cracking process and to evaluate the integrity of structures. The numerical simulation on AE activities is helpful for us to explain the AE data observed during the AE test of concrete and to therefore clarify the associated failure mechanism. Based on the knowledge that the AE events of concrete under external loading are closely related to its internal damage, it becomes possible for us to simulate these AE activities of concrete at meso-level with a numerical tool. In this paper, a numerical model is used to simulate the AE activities of mortar and concrete beams under three-point bending. Based on numerical simulation, the load–displacement curves and corresponding AE activities of mortar and concrete specimens are obtained and are calibrated against the corresponding experimental results. Subsequently, this numerical model is utilized to simulate the AE activities of mortar specimen when it is subjected to cyclic loading, and the Kaiser effect of AE is reproduced.