Improvements to the structural condition index (SCI) for pavement structural evaluation at network level

Structural evaluation provides valuable information about the expected behaviour and response of pavements and can be used at the network level of pavement management to prioritise projects. The falling weight deflectometer (FWD) can be used to identify the beginning and end of management sections and group pavement sections with similar structural capacities. The structural condition index (SCI) was developed as a screening tool for the pavement network-level evaluation, and the FWD data are used to determine the SCI. For the successful implementation of the SCI concept at the network level, one of the critical issues is the accuracy of the index. This article evaluates the accuracy of the SCI and also discusses a concept and procedure how to improve the SCI and its algorithm for low-volume flexible pavements. A case study (Texas) illustrates that the original SCI algorithm underestimates the existing structural condition, resulting in overestimated treatments in the pavement maintenance and rehabilitation.     

Implementation of stress-dependent resilient modulus of asphalt-treated base for flexible pavement design

Abstract

Asphalt-treated base (ATB) is a widely used base course material in flexible pavements. Due to its lower binder content and lower quality granular material, resilient modulus (M_R) of ATB exhibits a stress dependent property. While most of the pavement analysis software used in the current routine design tasks is based on Burmister’s multi-layer elastic theory, in which the M_R is the primary fundamental material property, the software cannot truly deal with the stress-dependent M_R of paving material. In this study, M_R model in the Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design Guide was adopted to accommodate the stress-dependent M_R of ATBs and the model was implemented in pavement mechanistic analyses through Abaqus finite element software and its user programmed subroutine. The comparison of critical pavement responses was made among pavements with three types of ATBs. Pavement responses obtained using the multi-layered elastic theory and based on resilient moduli recommended by Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities, were also included for comparison.     

Packing theory-based framework for evaluating resilient modulus of unbound granular materials

Enhancing the quality of granular layers is fundamental to optimise the structural performance of the pavements. The objective of this study is to investigate whether previously developed packing theory-based aggregate parameters can evaluate the resilient modulus of unbound granular materials. In this study, 19 differently graded unbound granular materials from two countries (USA and Sweden) were evaluated. This study validated both porosity of primary structure (PS) and contact points per particle (coordination number) as key parameters for evaluating the resilient modulus of unbound granular materials. This study showed that decreasing the PS porosity – higher coordination number – calculated based on the proposed gradation model, yields higher resilient modulus. Good correlation was observed between the proposed packing parameters and resilient modulus of several types of aggregates. The packing theory-based framework successfully recognised granular materials that exhibited poor performance in terms of resilient modulus.     

Gypsum sand resilient modulus during cyclic soaking and drying

A laboratory investigation and analysis on the resilient modulus of gypsum-rich roadbed sand with a gypsum content of 38.8%, subjected to cyclic soaking and drying with a cycle length of 14 days, is presented and discussed. Eleven pairs of California bearing ratio (CBR) soil specimens were prepared for determining the resilient modulus using the wave propagation technique. After the application of this technique, the CBR load–penetration test was performed on each specimen to make use of the corresponding curve for determining the resilient modulus too. The wave propagation resilient modulus results are generally in good agreement with those based on CBR full load–penetration curve. The paper reveals that the cyclic soaking and drying process converges to an equilibrium state after the fifth cycle resulting in a resilient modulus which is much less than that for the common four days of soaking or that obtained from published correlation studies.     

An experimental design-based evaluation of sensitivities of MEPDG prediction: investigating main and interaction effects

The mechanistic–empirical pavement design guide (MEPDG) uses mechanistic–empirical models by analysing the impacts of traffic, climate, materials and pavement structure to predict performances of pavement. The MEPDG software uses a three-level hierarchical input to predict performance in terms of terminal International Roughness Index, permanent deformation, total cracking (reflective and alligator), asphalt concrete (AC) thermal fracture, AC bottom-up fatigue cracking and AC top-down fatigue cracking. However, these inputs with different levels of accuracy may have significant impact on performance prediction. This study focuses on the sensitivity of the inputs of MEPDG distresses to identify the effect of the accuracy level of inputs based on experimental design. A local sensitivity analysis is carried out to identify the main effect of inputs considering them as independent variables. Interaction effects are also analysed based on random combination of the inputs. Sensitive input variables and their combinations are evaluated through a multiple regression analysis for respective distresses.     

Backcalculation of viscoelastic and nonlinear flexible pavement layer properties from falling weight deflections

Appropriate characterisation of individual layer properties is crucial for mechanistic analysis of flexible pavements. Typically in inverse analyses, pavements are modelled as elastic or nonlinear elastic to obtain layer material properties through non-destructive falling weight deflectometer (FWD) testing. In this study, a layered viscoelastic–nonlinear forward model (called LAVAN) was used to develop a genetic algorithm-based backcalculation scheme (called BACKLAVAN). The LAVAN can consider both the viscoelastic behaviour of asphalt concrete (AC) layer and nonlinear elastic behaviour of unbound layers. The BACKLAVAN algorithm uses FWD load-response history at different test temperatures to backcalculate both the (damaged) E(t) and |E^*| master curve of AC layers and the linear and nonlinear elastic moduli of unbound layers of in-service pavements. The BACKLAVAN algorithm was validated using two FWD tests run on a long-term pavement performance section. Comparison between the backcalculated and measured results indicates that it should be possible to infer linear viscoelastic properties of AC layer as well as nonlinear elastic properties of unbound layers from FWD tests.     

New approaches for modelling subgrade nonlinearity in thin surfaced flexible pavements

The primary objective of this paper is to present new methods in characterising flexible pavements that possess nonlinear subgrade behavior using deflection data from falling weight deflectometer (FWD). The two techniques to be introduced are Simplified Deflection Modeling and Deflection Ratio (DefR) approach. FWD deflection data can be modelled accurately using an exponential curve in a mathematical form of Y = K₁ exp (?r/K₂). K₁ is equal to deflection at D₀ in micron and K₂ is the structural parameter at the respective sensor location. K₂ parameter is found to have a direct relationship with the material constant, value of the subgrade and it is taken as a measurement of the nonlinearity of the pavement layer. As K₂ increases and approaches 500, the pavement structure is observed to possess linear elastic behaviour. In the second method, the DefR is defined as the ratio of the FWD deflection of a sensor divided by the deflection of the preceding sensor. For pavements that exhibit nonlinear subgrade behavior, the DefR shows an increasing trend for FWD sensors located at 300mm and beyond. The two techniques have provided alternative approaches for modelling subgrade nonlinearity.     

Moisture influence on the resilient deformation behaviour of unbound granular materials

The influence of moisture on the resilient deformation properties of unbound granular materials was investigated based on repeated load triaxial tests. Results showed that the resilient modulus (M_R) decreased with increasing moisture for a relatively low number of load cycles (N) where the deformation behaviour was mostly resilient with a negligible amount of associated accumulated permanent deformation (PD). Modelling attempts on this behaviour were quite satisfactory. Furthermore, the M_R showed an increasing trend with increasing moisture, up to the optimum, when the N was relatively large with a significant amount of accumulated PD. Above the optimum, the M_R generally decreased. Further investigation suggested that moisture aided the post-compaction (PC) and possible particle rearrangement that resulted in the increased PD and increased M_R. The existing model did not work in this case indicating that the effect of PC on M_R should be considered in modelling.     

复合泡沫塑料模量和屈服强度的理论预测

基于广义自洽原理,利用四相球模型研究了复合泡沫塑料在拉伸加载下的力学性能,并对其可能发生的破坏进行了分析,发现模型退化后给出的泡沫材料强度预测结果与实验值符合较好。通过分析微珠与基体界面的法向应力集中系数和基体相的von Mises应力分布,可以发现,当微珠壁极薄时,微珠的力学行为与实心柔性粒子相似,随着微珠壁厚的增加,微珠对材料整体力学行为的影响与实心刚性粒子的影响接近相同。通过引入破坏影响因子,对复合泡沫塑料的强度预测进行研究,提出了一种有效的预测方法。     

Mechanistic-empirical methodology for the selection of cost-effective rehabilitation strategy for flexible pavements

A well-planned rehabilitation approach helps agencies to optimise the allocation of annual investment in pavement rehabilitation programs. Currently, many agencies are struggling with the selection of an optimal time-based and cost-effective rehabilitation solution to address the long-term needs of pavements. This study offers the use of a mechanistic-empirical methodology to develop a series of time-based rehabilitation strategies for high traffic volume flexible pavements located in Oklahoma. Six different pavement family groups are identified in the state, and comprehensive evaluation of existing pavements are conducted through analysis of falling weight deflectometer data and performance measures available in Oklahoma Pavement Management System database. The inadequacy of performance measures to fully characterise the condition of existing pavements are indicated, and damage factor determined from FWD data are suggested as trigger factor to select rehabilitation candidates. Three levels of rehabilitation activities including light, medium and heavy are considered as potential alternatives for rehabilitation candidates. A mechanistic-empirical methodology is employed to obtain an estimate of the performance of rehabilitation and extension in service lives of pavements. Also, an assessment output matrix is developed, which can be served as a supplemental tool to help the decision-makers in the highway agency with the rehabilitation related decision-making process. Cost-effectiveness of rehabilitation alternatives is determined through life cycle cost analysis, and three time-based renewal solutions are developed for pavement family groups that are in need of rehabilitation.     

Thin asphalt pavement performance equation through direct computation of falling weight deflectometer-derived strains

A fundamental aspect in a pavement management system is the evaluation of the pavement structural condition and its capability in supporting the designated traffic. The nondestructive technique of the falling weight deflectometer and the layered elastic model are commonly used to identify pavement structural condition. The approach in this article is mechanistic–empirical, with the intent to correlate the strain at the bottom of the asphalt layer with the number of coverages to failure. Strains were computed through mathematical approximation of the deflection basin measured at failure. The proposed asphalt criterion showed the same trend of the subgrade strain criterion developed in conjunction with the reformulation of the California bearing ratio (CBR)-Beta design criteria. The approach provided encouraging results when compared with the other analyses in the development of the CBR-Beta criteria. The database was from the full-scale flexible pavement testing at the US Army Engineer Research and Development Center in Vicksburg, MS, USA.     

Possible estimation of resilient modulus of fine-grained soils using a dynamic lightweight cone penetrometer

Resilient modulus is an important parameter to characterise the resilient behaviour of pavement materials. Resilient modulus can be determined in the laboratory from repeated load triaxial test and is defined as the ratio of deviator stress to recoverable strain. Inherently, it is a challenge to perform repeated load triaxial tests as a routine basic test due to its complicated, time-consuming and expensive procedure; hence, several empirical approaches to estimate the resilient modulus from other soil mechanical properties – California bearing ratio, unconfined compressive strength or physical properties – have been proposed. This study has investigated the application of a dynamic lightweight cone penetrometer for the estimation of the resilient modulus in the laboratory and field conditions for some Victorian fine-grained subgrade soils. The results show the possibility to estimate the resilient modulus of fine-grained soils using the dynamic lightweight penetration index at any moisture content (MC) from optimum MC to soaked conditions.     

含损伤复合材料剩余弹性模量预测的不确定分析

针对传统处理不确定问题概率统计方法的局限性, 提出两种非概率分析方法对具有不确定参数的含损伤复合材料剩余弹性模量问题进行研究。非概率方法将不确定变量描述为一区间数或凸集合, 再利用Taylor展开及区间四则运算, 便可得到含损伤复合材料剩余弹性模量的区间范围。非概率分析方法优点在于: 对于不确定参数数据信息依赖性较小, 计算方法简单、 实用, 并且精度可满足工程要求。通过一数值算例的两种情况对含损伤层合板的相对剩余弹性模量进行计算, 结果表明, 所提出的两种非概率方法在不确定信息较少时, 可以得到令人满意的结果。     

Estimating fatigue endurance limits of flexible airfield pavements

In perpetual pavements, damage from bottom-up cracking can be limited to the top surface lift through using a very thick surface layer or a binder-rich intermediate layer. This can be attained by maintaining tensile strains at the bottom of the hot-mix asphalt (HMA) layer below a certain value known as the fatigue endurance limit (FEL). This paper presents a method for estimating a strain-based FEL for flexible airfield pavements. The proposed method is based on the concept that a 50% reduction in HMA layer modulus would indicate initiation of fatigue cracking. Falling weight deflectometer (FWD) testing results, collected from National Airport Pavement Test Facility (NAPTF) flexible pavement sections, were analyzed to determine at which loading pass each section had a 50% reduction in HMA layer modulus (N_f50). NAPTF tensile strain data were also used to determine the tensile strain at N_f50 for each pavement section by averaging the peak tensile strains. The proposed approach was validated by comparing its results to those obtained using a common FEL estimation model known as the rate of dissipated energy change (RDEC) model. To further verify the results of the proposed approach, peak tensile strain was plotted vs. number of loading cycles for all sensors. Using these plots, the peak tensile strain at which the variability in the strain gauge data increased was used as an estimate of a possible FEL. The N_f50 tensile strains estimated using the proposed method were comparable to the values determined from RDEC and variability approaches.     

The relations between the shear modulus, the bulk modulus and Young's modulus for porous isotropic ceramic materials

A relation between the shear modulus and Young's modulus of isotropic porous ceramics has been derived based on the Mori–Tanaka mean-field approach. The applicability of the relation has been evaluated using the experimental values available in the literature for the shear modulus, the bulk modulus and Young's modulus of porous ceramics prepared using various processing techniques and powder sizes. It is also shown that the ratio of the shear to Young's modulus of porous ceramics can be approximated by a constant value of 0.391.     

无应力氧化下C/SiC复合材料弹性性能模拟及验证

结合复合材料氧化质量损失率模型和混合率公式, 发展了单向C/SiC复合材料在无应力氧化下的弹性模量预测方法。对400~700 ℃和700~900 ℃两种氧化机制下C/SiC复合材料的弹性模量进行了预测, 分析了氧化温度、氧化时间和纤维体积含量对C/SiC复合材料弹性模量的影响。开展了单向C/SiC复合材料在650 ℃和800 ℃空气环境下的无应力氧化试验, 建立了复合材料质量损失率与氧化时间的变化关系, 得到了氧化后材料拉伸应力-应变曲线。同时, 将理论预测值与试验结果进行对比, 发现理论值与试验值基本吻合, 从而验证了该方法能够有效地预测无应力氧化下陶瓷基复合材料的弹性性能。     

棕纤维弹性床垫甲醛释放量测定方法的研究

采用干燥器法、气候箱法、气体分析法对棕纤维弹性床垫中的甲醛进行收集,并用酚试剂分光光度法对收集的甲醛进行检测。检测结果表明,不同方法收集的棕纤维弹性床垫甲醛释放量具有一定的相关性,不同收集方法间呈线性关系。     

纤维缠绕复合材料纤维束形态的细观分析及弹性模量预测

在对纤维缠绕复合材料缠绕图案分析的基础上, 考虑到纤维束的交叠与波动, 提出一种用于计算纤维缠绕复合材料弹性模量的方法。该方法是在纤维缠绕图案中提取一代表单元, 将代表单元分成层板区域和纤维束波动区域。层板区域用经典层板理论计算弹性模量; 纤维束波动区域根据纤维波动的细观图形及走势计算弹性模量。根据层板区域和纤维束波动区域在代表单元中所占的比例, 组合2 个区域的弹性模量以获得代表单元的总体弹性模量。通过测试炭纤维/ 环氧树脂缠绕管在轴向拉伸载荷下的轴向弹性模量及泊松比, 验证了理论计算结果,表明该计算方法能较准确地计算纤维缠绕复合材料的弹性模量, 因此可为这类材料的设计计算提供有益的理论依据。      

声激励共振法测量微机械材料的杨氏模量

微机械材料的杨氏模量测量是随着微机械构件的产生而提出的一项新技术。文章综述了已有的测量微机械材料杨氏模量的方法。提出了用声激励共振法来测量微机械材料的杨氏模量。这种方法具有测试装置简单、测量容易、精度高等特点。     

具有开孔泡沫骨架的双连续相复合材料弹性模量的理论预测

基于具有开孔泡沫骨架的双连续相复合材料(IPC)的细观结构,提出了一种十四面体弹性地基梁力学模型,结合最小势能原理推导了该IPC的弹性模量预测公式。根据文献给出的实验材料参数进行算例分析,结果表明,理论估算结果与实验值吻合良好,证明了该模型的有效性。在此基础上,进一步讨论了不同骨架材料体积含量和支柱截面形状对IPC弹性模量的影响。本文给出的半经验理论模型为表征具有开孔泡沫骨架的IPC的弹性性能提供了新思路,也为进一步预测IPC的强度性能和热物理性能奠定了基础。