土木工程用FRP筋的耐久性研究进展

纤维增强塑料(FRP)筋作为一种钢筋替代材料在土木工程中应用日渐广泛。本文对FRP筋在多种环境条件下的耐久性问题的国内外研究进展进行了综述,重点讨论了温度、湿度、酸、碱、盐溶液等环境作用下FRP筋的耐久性及模拟加速环境作用对FRP筋与混凝土界面粘结性能的影响。结果表明,上述环境作用对FRP筋及其与混凝土界面粘结性能的耐久性都有不同程度的影响。另外,本文还给出Fares E.Tannous等人建立的FRP筋在盐、碱溶液侵蚀作用下的耐久性预测模型,并对今后FRP筋的耐久性研究趋势作了展望。     

Techniques for screening adhesives for structural applications

—Due to its chemistry, no structural adhesive system (epoxies, acrylics, etc.) is likely to offer an ideal combination of toughness, strength, moisture resistance, and ambient-temperature curing. Therefore, for effective use of adhesives in primary structures, an engineer must be able to identify adhesives that represent an optimum compromise among the different properties. In this paper, we present techniques for screening high-strength, ambient-temperature-curing adhesives for (1) moisture resistance under sustained loading and (2) fracture resistance in a way that is directly related to joint performance.     

Cold-setting wood adhesives from kraft hardwood lignin

The model compound used in this study, for hardwood kraft lignin, 3,5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl ethane, was successfully hydroxymethylated at the position meta to the aromatic hydroxy group. The consequent expectation that kraft hardwood lignin syringyl units can, under optimum conditions, also be hydroxymethylated to a substantial extent was confirmed in the present work and made it possible to cross-link the kraft hardwood lignin to yield polymeric products that could be used as adhesives. © 1994 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Withdrawal strength of threaded steel rods glued with epoxy in wood

In this study, the axial strength of joints made with threaded steel rods glued in timber with epoxy is investigated. Although numerous experimental studies have investigated these joints made in glued laminated timber (glulam) from softwood, experimental data concerning tests on a whole range of hardwood species are still lacking. Thus, to evaluate the influence of timber characteristics on the behaviour of the joint, test results from different species are presented and discussed in this paper. The experimental results from samples using softwood as well as high-density hardwood glued laminated timber are compared. Diverse geometries of the joint are studied in both cases. From this experimental analysis, a formula to predict the strength of the glued-in bars is proposed. The prediction of the strength is made from two parameters that are easily quantifiable the density of the timber and the slenderness of the glued joint. This model shows a good accuracy with the test results of joints made on different species both from softwood and hardwood.     

Rods glued in engineered hardwood products part I: Experimental results under quasi-static loading

Glued-in Rods (GiR) represent an adhesively bonded structural connection widely used in timber engineering. Up to now, common practice largely focused on softwood. Most structural adhesives have been, accordingly, specifically formulated to perform on softwood, in particular spruce. The increased use of hardwood, and corresponding engineered wood products (EWP), calls for deeper insights regarding GiR for the connection thereof. This paper, the first of a two part series, presents an overview over extensive research carried with 9 adhesives, 3 EWP, and 4 types of rods. Investigations started at component level, by fully characterising all adhesives, EWP, and rods. They were then extended to characterise the behaviour of interfaces, providing by this a methodology for selecting adhesives. Investigations at full scale followed, involving 5 different adhesives, 3 EWP, and 4 rod types. A total of 180 individual samples were tested. The results allowed to draw conclusions about the relationship between performance of GiR connections, and mechanical properties of their components. This relationship, however, has been found to be relatively weak. The companion paper will present a design methodology based on the material properties determined herein, and explain the ambiguous relationship between performance of the GiR and the mechanical properties of the adhesive, wood, and rods     

New experiences with epoxies for structural applications

The properties and testing of structural adhesives are reviewed in relation to such applications as segmental concrete bridge construction and the repair and strengthening of reinforced concrete structures. Criteria for the selection of epoxy adhesives are discussed with particular emphasis on creep deformation, heat stability, moisture resistance, on site conditions, handling, and field testing. Supportive structural tests for certain large-scale applications are also described.     

GROUPING TROPICAL WOOD SPECIES FOR KILN DRYING USING MATHEMATICAL MODELS

ABSTRACT

Because of the large variety and diffuse occurrence of tropical hardwood species in the forest, an efficient method to kiln dry these hardwoods in groups is needed. However, tropical hardwoods have a wide variety of drying properties, which makes drying mixtures of species difficult. This paper describes a mathematical model for grouping species by similar drying times. Our goal is to kiln dry so that all species emerge at the same time within set limits of moisture content. The model, which uses previously reported data, incorporates specific gravity, initial moisture content, and thickness as criteria for grouping species based on estimated drying time. The model can be used to calculate drying times and moisture content distributions within multiple-step kiln schedules, followed by calculations to equalize all members of the mixture within final moisture content specifications. The model can also be used to base grouping on green weight density, thus eliminating the need for direct information on specific gravity and initial moisture content. Plans are to evaluate the dry-kiln grouping system in field tests.     

One-year bonding performance of one-bottle etch-and-rinse adhesives to dentin at different moisture conditions

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the one-year bond strengths to dentin of one-bottle etch-and-rinse adhesive systems applied under different moisture conditions. Class V cavities were prepared in bovine incisors and randomly allocated (n?=?8) according to the type of adhesive system used – SB (Adper? Single Bond 2); PB (Prime & Bond 2.1); and XPB (XP Bond) – and the moisture condition kept in the cavity – moist, over-wet, and over-dry. Filtek? Z250 was used for teeth restoration. Specimens for microtensile bond strength (µTBS) test were obtained and stored in water for 24?h or 1?year, and submitted to mechanical testing. Data were analyzed using t-tests, ANOVA and the Holm–Sidak post hoc test (α?=?0.05). Weibull analysis was used to verify the reliability of specimens. The type of adhesive and the moisture condition of the substrate affected the µTBS. At 24?h, SB performed better under the moist and over-wet conditions. At 1?year, SB, PB, and XPB showed the greatest percentage reduction at the moist (～38%), over-wet (100%), and over-dry (100%) conditions, respectively. The reliability of adhesives was affected by the variable factors tested. In conclusion, the solvent composition of adhesives and the moisture condition of the substrate play an important role in the bond strength and bonding stability of resin-based restorations, as well as on the reliability of the adhesive interfaces over time.     

Assessment of the Actual Performance of an Industrial Solar Kiln for Drying Timber

Abstract

The aim of this study was to assess the actual performance of an instrumented industrial solar kiln for drying Australian hardwood timber (Eucalyptus pilularis) boards (270 × 43 mm). Ambient temperature and humidity, air temperature and humidity in the kiln, and wood moisture contents were recorded on site (Heron's Creek, NSW, Australia) using sensors and an electronic data acquisition and logging system. The average increases in air temperatures in the kiln compared with ambient conditions were 17.3°C (May–June), 13.8°C (July–August), 10°C (September–October), 8.2°C (November–March), and 7.5°C (March–May) for five runs monitored. Drying times were 2–4 months from initial moisture contents of 43 to 62% (dry-basis) to final moisture contents of 12 to 22%. Overall, the solar kiln has been shown to be an acceptable alternative to air-drying for pre-drying of Australian hardwood timber.     

考虑不同位置变化的GFRP筋与混凝土粘结试验研究

通过对GFRP筋混凝土试件进行内贴片单端拉拔试验,将试验数据进行总结和分析,绘制GFRP筋应变随荷载和不同位置变化的分布曲线,探讨曲线各自的特征;研究GFRP筋与混凝土之间的粘结应力及滑移随不同位置变化的分布情况。试验结果表明,由于GFRP筋材料本身特性的原因使得其与混凝土之间的粘结应力随位置的变化规律与钢筋混凝土有显著的不同;运用粘结长度范围内不同位置处的滑移拟合公式得到的随不同位置变化的滑移曲线计算值与试验值吻合良好。     

Creep performance of glued-in rod joints in controlled and variable climate conditions

Presented in this study are the results of creep tests on joints with single glued-in rods performed in controlled and variable climate conditions. The joints were prepared using steel threaded rods of 8 mm in diameter, wood of two species: Black spruce (Picea mariana Mill) and Norway spruce (Picea Abies L.), and two adhesives: polyurethane (PUR) and epoxy (EXP). The first test campaign was performed under two constant climate conditions: 20 °C / 65% relative humidity (RH) and at 50 °C / 72% RH. The applied load corresponded to a stress level of 50% of the static breaking load. The moisture content of wood remained constant during the experiments. Results revealed that the joints were subject to creep with major differences between the adhesives. Low data variability was observed for specimens with the EPX and strong correlations were found between the initial stiffness and the stiffness at 10 days and 25 days. The EPX joints developed lower creep than the PUR joints at 20 °C. At the temperature of 50 °C, the creep of the EPX joints increased but there were no failures observed within 60 days, whereas all PUR joints reached failure at the same stress level within days. The second test campaign was launched using the EPX to study the creep of the joints in variable climate conditions at the stress ratios between 60% and 78% of the static strength. The variation in ambient conditions appeared to affect the creep: humidification phase preceded by drying generated significantly higher creep. The humid and dry cycles may govern the load duration and cause the rupture. In addition, this study revealed that the wood drying from 18% to 10% created some damaging cracks at the wood-adhesive interface. The propagation of stable cracks induced an increase of the slippage in the joints and reduction of the residual strength.     

Durable adhesives for large laminated timber

Large laminated timber (LT) made of hardwood is widely used as the main constitutional element of goods such as furniture, pianos and doors. A high durability of LT is essential to these products. This study focused on finding as to what adhesives were acceptable as highly durable adhesives for LT. Twelve different adhesives such as resorcinol-formaldehyde resin, aqueous emulsion-type isocyanate resin, poly(vinyl acetate) emulsion, epoxy resin, etc. were used. The durability of LT, i.e., the percentage of delamination length of LT under tests such as humidity and temperature cycling tests, and outdoor tests, was discussed in relation to the adhesive shear strength of a lap joint (LJ). The results showed that the percentage of delamination length under both low ?20°C for 16 h and high-temperature 50°C for 8 h cycling tests (temperature-resistance) on LT indicated a strong trend with the adhesive shear strength of the LJ exposed to dry air at 100°C for 24 h. In addition, the percentage of delamination length under outdoor exposure test for three months (outdoor-resistance) of the LT showed a trend with the adhesive shear strength of the LJ exposed to dry air at 100°C for 24 h, as well as with the adhesive shear strength of the LJ immersed in water at 60°C for 3 h. These trends pointed out that the thermal stability of the adhesive from ?20°C for 16 h up to 50°C for 8 h was an important parameter in order to improve adhesive durability for the LT.     

Effect of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and silicon carbide nanoparticles on the deleterious influence of water absorption in adhesively bonded joints

In this study, the deleterious influence of hot deionized water on adhesively bonded joints was reduced with silicon carbide (SiC) nanoparticles and multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). A gravimetric method was used to study the kinetics of water ingress into the neat and nanocomposite epoxy adhesives. Then, joints were manufactured using the same neat and nanocomposite adhesives and aged for different periods according to the results obtained from the bulk sample tests and finite element modeling. The results showed that the reinforcing effect of nanofillers on the strength was about three times higher for the wet epoxy adhesive compared to the dry one. Moreover, it was found out that introducing 4.4 wt% of SiCs or 0.52 wt% of MWCNTs to the adhesive can compensate the degrading influence of aging under near-saturated condition. Furthermore, the scanning electron microscope (SEM) fractography was used to assess the fracture surfaces of the neat and reinforced samples.     

Moisture Uptake by Some Uncured Adhesive Films

The uptake of moisture by epoxy-based adhesives and fibre reinforced composites after cure has been the topic of many studies. The extent of moisture uptake by uncured adhesive films and composite prepregs, and the effect which this has on the performance of such systems after cure, has received much less attention. It is, nonetheless, recognised as an important consideration and most aerospace lay up facilities include controlled humidity conditions.     

A Formaldehyde-Free Water-Resistant Soy Flour-Based Adhesive for Plywood

The phasing out of the use of urea–formaldehyde adhesive in the fabrication of interior‐used hardwood plywood requires development of environmentally friendly bio‐based wood adhesives. We recently reported that phosphorylation of soy flour (SF) using phosphoryl chloride (POCl₃) greatly improved the moisture resistance of soy flour adhesive. In the present study, we investigated the effects of inorganic oxidizing agents, such as NaClO₂ and Ca(NO₂)₂, to further improve the wet bonding strength of phosphorylated SF (PSF) wood adhesive. We report that addition of 1.8 % (wet weight basis) Ca(NO₂)₂ to phosphorylated SF (PSF) adhesive formulation containing 25 % soy flour solids increased the wet bonding strength to greater than 3 MPa at 140 °C hot‐press temperature. The water resistance testing of the glued three‐ply hardwood plywood panels passed the three‐cycle soak/dry test recommended by the American National Standard for Hardwood and Decorative Plywood/Hardwood Plywood and Veneer Association protocol (ANSI/HPVA HP‐1‐2004). Since the process involves only inorganic chemistry and no petroleum‐based chemicals such as formaldehyde or polyamidoamine–epichlorohydrin are used, the PSF + Ca(NO₂)₂ adhesive is non‐toxic and environmentally safe.     

Effect of imbibed moisture on monotonic and low-velocity impact behavior of injection over-molded short/continuous fiber reinforced polypropylene composites

Design of automotive components with over-molded short/continuous fiber reinforced thermoplastic composites necessitates understanding of their behavior under extreme outdoor conditions. The short, quasi-isotropic and over-molded short/continuous glass fiber reinforced polypropylene (PP) composite specimens were prepared as per standard and immersed in water until equilibration to study their relative moisture absorption characteristics and consequent mechanical behavior. As the absorbed moisture mostly occupied the interface between fiber and matrix in laminated composite inserts and moisture absorption of short fiber composite core is insignificant, the moisture absorption of over-molded composites is just above 50% of that of laminated composites. The flexural, interlaminar shear and impact behavior of equilibrated composites is primarily governed by the quantum of imbibed moisture of composite materials. Optical analysis of failed moisture equilibrated over-molded specimens showed a marginal delamination between plies of the inserts without any perceptible damage within the short fiber composite similar to dry as molded specimens.     

Adhesive Bonding to Galvanized Steel: I. Lap Shear Strengths and Environmental Durability

Initial (i.e., unaged) adhesion, as well as adhesion after seven day, 60°C water immersion and six week scab corrosion accelerated environmental exposures, has been assessed for five different one and two-part epoxy adhesives, bonded to three different types of galvanized steel substrates. We have shown that adhesion, as measured by lap shear strength, is specific to the galvanized substrate type. In general, for a given adhesive, adhesion to “hot-dipped” galvanized substrates is harder to achieve and maintain under accelerated environmental exposure than is adhesion to “electroplated” galvanized. Also, for a given type of galvanized steel, the one-part epoxies evaluated generally showed higher initial strengths, as well as better strength retention under environmental exposure than did the two-part epoxies.     

不同种类拉挤FRP筋材压缩强度研究

针对拉挤纤维增强树脂基复合材料(FRP)筋材的压缩强度远低于其拉伸强度的问题,分别对玻璃纤维增强复合材料(GFRP)筋材、碳纤维增强复合材料(CFRP)筋材和混杂纤维增强复合材料(HFRP)筋材进行了端部有约束和无约束压缩实验,研究纤维类型、端部约束条件对FRP筋材在轴压状态下的破坏形式与压缩强度的影响规律。结果表明,无端部约束时不同纤维类型的FRP筋材的破坏现象与压缩强度差别较大;端部约束可以改变筋材的破坏方式,提高筋材的压缩强度;不同端部约束形式对不同FRP筋材压缩强度的提高作用不同。     

Adhesive Bonding to Galvanized Steel: I. Lap Shear Strengths and Environmental Durability

Initial (i.e., unaged) adhesion, as well as adhesion after seven day, 60°C water immersion and six week scab corrosion accelerated environmental exposures, has been assessed for five different one and two-part epoxy adhesives, bonded to three different types of galvanized steel substrates. We have shown that adhesion, as measured by lap shear strength, is specific to the galvanized substrate type. In general, for a given adhesive, adhesion to “hot-dipped” galvanized substrates is harder to achieve and maintain under accelerated environmental exposure than is adhesion to “electroplated” galvanized. Also, for a given type of galvanized steel, the one-part epoxies evaluated generally showed higher initial strengths, as well as better strength retention under environmental exposure than did the two-part epoxies.     

V-notched rail shear test applied to geopolymer composites

This work presents a systematic study of the shear properties of a potassium-based geopolymer reinforced with distinct types of fibers. Chopped basalt reinforcements in lengths from 3 mm up to 50 mm and 13 μm in diameter were compared with thicker 20-mm length, basalt mini bars, sand-coated basalt mini rods, and steel fibers. The samples were tested under a V-notched rail shear tests (ASTM D7078), coupled with optical measurements, namely, digital image correlation, allowing a novel study of their crack patterns and failure modes under shear loading. In general, the use of chopped fibers resulted in shear strengths of up to 9 MPa and shear moduli of 4.3 GPa, with no significant variation with fiber length increments, neither in shear stress nor strain at peak load (0.1%). Mini bars and steel fiber reinforcements resulted in slightly lower shear stresses of 7.1 and 8.4 MPa, respectively. They exhibited greater strain values at peak loads, up to 2.1% which were attributed to fiber-matrix enhanced adhesions, thereby allowing gradual debonding and increased ductility. This effect was also recorded for mini rods, but at much lower strength levels, which did not contribute to their multiple cracking capacities. The alignment of the mini rods in 45° directions resulted in a 50% increase in shear stress, showing the feasibility of tailoring the manufacturing process to attend to distinct demands.