Factors Affecting the Nucleation Kinetics of Microporosity Formation in Aluminum Alloy A356

Metal cleanliness is one of the most critical parameters affecting microporosity formation in aluminum alloy castings. It is generally acknowledged that oxide inclusions in the melt promote microporosity formation by facilitating pore nucleation. In this study, microporosity formation under different casting conditions, which aimed to manipulate the tendency to form and entrain oxide films in small directionally cast A356 samples was investigated. Castings were prepared with and without the aid of argon gas shielding and with a varying pour surface area. Two alloy variants of A356 were tested in which the main difference was Sr content. Porous disc filtration analysis was used to assess the melt cleanliness and identify the inclusions in the castings. The porosity volume fraction and size distribution were measured using X-ray micro-tomography analysis. The measurements show a clear increment in the volume fraction, number density, and pore size in a manner consistent with an increasing tendency to form and entrain oxide films during casting. By fitting the experimental results with a comprehensive pore formation model, an estimate of the pore nucleation population has been made. The model predicts that increasing the tendency to form oxide films increases both the number of nucleation sites and reduces the supersaturation necessary for pore nucleation in A356 castings. Based on the model predictions, Sr modification impacts both the nucleation kinetics and the pore growth kinetics via grain structure.     

Modeling of microporosity formation in A356 aluminum alloy casting

A numerical model for predicting microporosity formation in aluminum castings has been developed, which describes the redistribution of hydrogen between solid and liquid phases, the transport of hydrogen in liquid by diffusion, and Darcy flow in the mushy zone. For simulating the nucleation of hydrogen pores, the initial pore radius is assumed to be a function of the secondary dendrite arm spacing, whereas pore growth is based on the assumption that hydrogen activity within the pore and the liquid are in equilibrium. One of the key features of the model is that it uses a two-stage approach for porosity prediction. In the first stage, the volume fraction of porosity is calculated based on the reduced pressure, whereas, in the second stage, at fractions solid greater than the liquid encapsulation point, the fraction porosity is calculated based on the volume of liquid trapped within the continuous solid network, which is estimated using a correlation based on the Niyama parameter. The porosity model is used in conjunction with a thermal model solved using the commercial finite-element package ABAQUS. The parameters influencing the formation of microporosity are discussed including a means to describe the supersaturation of hydrogen necessary for pore nucleation. The model has been applied to examine the evolution of porosity in a series of experimental samples cast using unmodified A356 in which the initial hydrogen content was varied from 0.048 to 0.137 (cc/100 g). A comparison between the model predictions and the experimental measurements indicates good agreement in terms of the variation in porosity with distance from the chill and the variation resulting from initial hydrogen content.     

Modeling of microporosity formation in A356 aluminum alloy casting

A numerical model for predicting microporosity formation in aluminum castings has been developed, which describes the redistribution of hydrogen between solid and liquid phases, the transport of hydrogen in liquid by diffusion, and Darcy flow in the mushy zone. For simulating the nucleation of hydrogen pores, the initial pore radius is assumed to be a function of the secondary dendrite arm spacing, whereas pore growth is based on the assumption that hydrogen activity within the pore and the liquid are in equilibrium. One of the key features of the model is that it uses a two-stage approach for porosity prediction. In the first stage, the volume fraction of porosity is calculated based on the reduced pressure, whereas, in the second stage, at fractions solid greater than the liquid encapsulation point, the fraction porosity is calculated based on the volume of liquid trapped within the continuous solid network, which is estimated using a correlation based on the Niyama parameter. The porosity model is used in conjunction with a thermal model solved using the commercial finite-element package ABAQUS. The parameters influencing the formation of microporosity are discussed including a means to describe the supersaturation of hydrogen necessary for pore nucleation. The model has been applied to examine the evolution of porosity in a series of experimental samples cast using unmodified A356 in which the initial hydrogen content was varied from 0.048 to 0.137 (cc/100 g). A comparison between the model predictions and the experimental measurements indicates good agreement in terms of the variation in porosity with distance from the chill and the variation resulting from initial hydrogen content.     

Modeling of microporosity formation in A356 aluminum alloy casting

A numerical model for predicting microporosity formation in aluminum castings has been developed, which describes the redistribution of hydrogen between solid and liquid phases, the transport of hydrogen in liquid by diffusion, and Darcy flow in the mushy zone. For simulating the nucleation of hydrogen pores, the initial pore radius is assumed to be a function of the secondary dendrite arm spacing, whereas pore growth is based on the assumption that hydrogen activity within the pore and the liquid are in equilibrium. One of the key features of the model is that it uses a two-stage approach for porosity prediction. In the first stage, the volume fraction of porosity is calculated based on the reduced pressure, whereas, in the second stage, at fractions solid greater than the liquid encapsulation point, the fraction porosity is calculated based on the volume of liquid trapped within the continuous solid network, which is estimated using a correlation based on the Niyama parameter. The porosity model is used in conjunction with a thermal model solved using the commercial finite-element package ABAQUS. The parameters influencing the formation of microporosity are discussed including a means to describe the supersaturation of hydrogen necessary for pore nucleation. The model has been applied to examine the evolution of porosity in a series of experimental samples cast using unmodified A356 in which the initial hydrogen content was varied from 0.048 to 0.137 (cc/100 g). A comparison between the model predictions and the experimental measurements indicates good agreement in terms of the variation in porosity with distance from the chill and the variation resulting from initial hydrogen content.     

Hydrogen evolution during directional solidification and its effect on porosity formation in aluminum alloys

Most of the models for predicting porosity formation in aluminum alloy castings use a simple mass balance, such as the lever rule, to track hydrogen enrichment in the interdendritic liquid. However, the hydrogen concentration predicted by the lever rule is typically too low to satisfy the threshold concentration for pore nucleation based on classical nucleation and growth theory. As a result, important features of microporosity such as the size and spacing of pores cannot be treated properly. In this article, the hydrogen concentration during the directional solidification of an Al-4.5 pct Cu alloy is calculated, assuming hydrogen rejection during solidification and diffusion in the mushy zone. The calculation shows that the use of the lever rule greatly underestimates the hydrogen concentration at the eutectic front. This is due to the fact that the eutectic front also rejects hydrogen and that this is not considered in the use of the lever rule. Results of numerical simulations that consider hydrogen rejection and diffusion are compared with results obtained using the lever rule. The comparison indicates that actual hydrogen concentrations may be orders of magnitude higher than that predicted by the lever rule. It is suggested that the lever rule should not be used in predicting porosity nucleation. The model outlined in this article is used to propose and explain the formation of a wavelike distribution of pores during directional solidification.     

Size and Morphology of Gas Porosity in Castings—Insights into Computational Experiments Using a Cellular Automaton Model

Aluminium castings are known to be prone to micro-porosity formation which appears as fine porosity in the inter-dendritic and inter-granular regions of castings. The size, distribution and morphology of such pores significantly affect mechanical and fatigue properties of castings. We use a cellular automaton simulation model as a virtual experimental set-up to study growth of gas bubbles in solidifying aluminium castings. The model assumes that gas porosity originates from pre-existing micro-bubbles that grow by diffusion of hydrogen from the solid–liquid interfaces into the bubbles. The major factors that limit the growth of the bubbles are the finite time available for the diffusion of hydrogen and the space constraint imposed by the growing solid. While the diffusion limitation to pore growth has been studied well, the effect of the space constraint has not received much attention. Our cellular automaton model with growth rules specially adapted for bubble growth tracks the solid–liquid and bubble–liquid interfaces explicitly on a fine grid. Numerical experiments are performed with a eutectic Al–Si alloy solidified with different grain sizes and solidification rates. The micro-structural environment in which a pre-existing bubble finds itself is seen to be the most critical factor that determines the final size and morphology of porosity.     

Pore Formation During Solidification of Aluminum: Reconciliation of Experimental Observations,Modeling Assumptions,and Classical Nucleation Theory

An in-depth discussion of pore formation is presented in this paper by first reinterpreting in situ observations reported in the literature as well as assumptions commonly made to model pore formation in aluminum castings. The physics of pore formation is reviewed through theoretical fracture pressure calculations based on classical nucleation theory for homogeneous and heterogeneous nucleation, with and without dissolved gas, i.e., hydrogen. Based on the fracture pressure for aluminum, critical pore size and the corresponding probability of vacancies clustering to form that size have been calculated using thermodynamic data reported in the literature. Calculations show that it is impossible for a pore to nucleate either homogeneously or heterogeneously in aluminum, even with dissolved hydrogen. The formation of pores in aluminum castings can only be explained by inflation of entrained surface oxide films (bifilms) under reduced pressure and/or with dissolved gas, which involves only growth, avoiding any nucleation problem. This mechanism is consistent with the reinterpretations of in situ observations as well as the assumptions made in the literature to model pore formation.     

A model for prediction of pressure and redistribution of gas-forming elements in multicomponent casting alloys

A finite element model for simulating macrosegregation in multicomponent alloys is extended to include the calculation of pressure and redistribution of gas-forming elements during solidification. The model solves the conservation equations of mass, momentum, energy, and alloy components, including gas-forming elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen. The results of transport calculations are contrasted with thermodynamic equilibrium conditions to establish the possible formation of pores, assuming that there is no barrier to nucleation of the pores. By solving the transport of gaseous solutes and comparing their Sievert’s pressure with the local pressure, the new mode can predict regions of possible formation of intergranular porosity. Simulations were performed for a nickel-base alloy (INCONEL 718) in plate castings with equiaxed structure, and the evolution of microporosity for different initial concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen was analyzed. The simulations showed that during solidification and cooling, a large fraction of the hydrogen escapes and a smaller fraction of nitrogen escapes from the casting. The initial gas concentration is an important factor in porosity formation, but the pressure drop due to shrinkage flow is not very significant. The resulting gas porosity is rather insensitive to initial nitrogen concentration, but sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen.     

Simulation of microporosity formation in modified and unmodified A356 alloy castings

In order to comprehensively model both the performance and inspectability of early design stage safety critical aluminum castings, the size, shape, and location of defects such as pores should be determined by simulation. In this article, a two-dimensional (2-D) model to predict grain size, pore size, pore morphology, and location is presented. The proposed model couples hydrogen gas evolution and microshrinkage pore formation mechanisms with a grain growth simulation model. The nucleation and growth of grains are modeled with a probabilistic method that uses the information from a macroscale heat transfer simulation to determine the rules of transition for grain evolution. Microshrinkage pores and the combination of microshrinkage and gas pores are addressed. The proposed model and postprocessing can provide direct simulated views of the microstructure of the solidifying casting. In the present work, the effect of Sr modifier and hydrogen content on pore size and morphology for equiaxed aluminum alloy A356 is modeled. The simulation results correlate well with the experimental observation of cast structures and other published data. In addition, Sievert’s law and the conditions for spontaneous growth of a gas pore are derived from first principles in the Appendix.     

The reduced pressure test as a measuring

Porosity is one of the important factors critical to the production of optimum aluminum alloy castings. Hydrogen is mainly responsible for the “gas porosity” in such castings, which is also affected by other factors including melt cleanliness. The importance, therefore, of obtaining a reliable estimate of the melt hydrogen level prior to casting has led to the development of several techniques, among which the reduced pressure test (RPT), basically a comparative, qualitative test, appears to be the one popularly used in foundries due to its simplicity and easy adaptation to the foundry floor. Attempts have been made to quantify the test by correlating the densities of reduced pressure samples with the hydrogen contents of their melts. In the present study, the RPT was tested as a means of determining the hydrogen content in Al-7 wt pet Si-10 vol pet SiC composite melts as part of an on-going study being carried out in our laboratories on such composites. The results reveal that rather than indicating the hydrogen content of the melt, the RPT is a better indicator of the porosity content of the cast sample and can be employed as a melt quality measuring tool, provided the sample density is correctly related to said po- rosity. Qualitative analysis is substantiated throughout by pore size and distribution data ob- tained from image analysis. It is also found that compared to the unreinforced A356 matrix alloy, the composite material has a beneficial effect on the formation of porosity due to the tendency of the SiC reinforcement particles to restrict the growth of the pores. This, coupled with the microporosity associated with the presence of the SiC particles, results in the skewed pore size distribution curves typically observed for the composite samples.     

On the removal of pores from castings by sintering

The causes, sizes, and distribution of porosity in castings have been reviewed and quantitatively evaluated for several important modes of alloy solidification. In general, gas exsolution is found to be the most probable cause of porosity in castings which solidify in either a cellular or dendritic fashion. On the other hand, solidification alone may cause porosity creation if the interdendritic liquid metal cannot feed the solidification shrinkage. This effect may be enhanced by gas exsolution. Removal of porosity by “sintering” after solidification requires that the grain size be of the order of, or smaller than, the pore spacing, and that the pores be small (>1 μ) for removal within reasonable times (tens of hours). When gas exsolution is the cause of pore creation, the gas must be diffused out of the sample to permit pore shrinkage. Small ingot sizes (>10 cm) and rapidly diffusible gases (H₂) are required for pore elimination within reasonable times (tens of hours). The application of low pressure (>20 atm) during sintering increases the rate, or the size (to >10 mμ) of the pores which can be eliminated within >20 hr. This paper is based on an invited talk presented at a symposium on Homogenization of Alloys, sponsored by the IMD Heat Treatment Committee, and held on May 11, 1970, at the spring meeting of The Metallurgical Society of AIME, in Las Vegas, Nev.     

Mathematical modeling of porosity formation in solidification

Shrinkage porosity and gas porosity occur simultaneously and at the same location when conditions are such that both may exist in a solidifying casting. Porosity formation in a solidifying alloy is described numerically, including the possible evolution of dissolved gases. The calculated amount and size of the porosity formed in Al-4.5 pct Cu plate castings compares favorably with measured values. The calculated distribution of porosity in sand cast Al-4.5 pct Cu plates of 1.5 cm thickness matches experimental measurements. The decrease of the hydrogen content by strong degassing and the increase of mold chilling power are recommended to produce sound aluminum alloy castings. The calculated results for steel plate castings are in agreement with the experimental work of Pellini. The present modeling has clarified the basis of empirical rules for soundness and suggests that the simultaneous occurrence of shrinkage and gas evolution is an essential mechanism in the formation of porosity defects.     

Mechanisms of porosity formation during solidification: A theoretical analysis

The formation of porosity during solidification is of great commercial importance and scientific interest. This is particularly so for the question of the “feeding length” of a riser. In this work, a number of theoretical models are derived and their predictions are compared to experimental observations. The comparisons show that in directional solidification, a “thermodynamic” model is useful in predicting when porosity may form. The amount of porosity predicted is too high, however, since it ignores the nucleation of the pore and growth by diffusion of dissolved gas to growing pores. A surprising conclusion of this study is that Darcy’s law does not appear to be a controlling factor in porosity distribution or formation. In particular, Darcy’s law cannot explain feeding length measurements made in steel castings. A simple “geometrical” criterion is presented instead to describe when shrinkage porosity will occur. This new model suggests a number of interesting experiments, which are proposed in discussion.     

Fabrication of Porous Aluminum with Directional Pores through Continuous Casting Technique

Lotus-type porous aluminum with slender directional pores is fabricated via a continuous casting technique in pressurized hydrogen or a mixed gas containing hydrogen and argon. The influence of solidification conditions such as hydrogen partial pressure, solidification velocity, temperature gradient, and melt temperature on the porosity and pore size is investigated. The porosity and pore size increase upon increasing the hydrogen partial pressure or the melt temperature, whereas the porosity and pore size decrease upon increasing the solidification velocity or the temperature gradient. Furthermore, the mechanism of pore formation in lotus aluminum is examined based on the results of an improved model of hydrogen mass balance in the solidification front, which was originally proposed by Yamamura et al. The results from the present model agree with the experimental results. We conclude that the diffusion of hydrogen rejected in the solidified aluminum near the solid/liquid interface is the most important factor for pore formation because the difference in hydrogen solubility between solid and liquid aluminum is very small.     

Modification-related porosity formation in hypoeutectic aluminum-silicon alloys

A series of aluminum-10 wt pct silicon castings were produced in sand molds to investigate the effect of modification on porosity formation. Modification with individual additions of either strontium or sodium resulted in a statistically significant increase in the level of porosity compared to unmodified castings. The increase in porosity with modification is due to the presence of numerous dispersed pores, which were absent in the unmodified casting. It is proposed that these pores form as a result of differences in size of the aluminum-silicon eutectic grains between unmodified and modified alloys. A geometric model is developed to show how the size of eutectic grains can influence the amount and distribution of porosity. Unlike traditional feeding-based models, which incorporate the effect of microstructure on permeability, this model considers what happens when liquid is isolated from the riser and can no longer flow. This simple “isolation” model complements rather than contradicts existing theories on modification-related porosity formation and should be considered in the development of future comprehensive models.     

Microporosity prediction in aluminum alloy castings

A comprehensive methodology that takes into account solidification, shrinkage-driven interdendritic fluid flow, hydrogen precipitation, and porosity evolution has been developed for the prediction of the microporosity fraction and distribution in aluminum alloy castings. The approach may be used to determine the extent of gas and shrinkage porosity, i.e., the resultant microporosity which occurs due to gas precipitation and that which occurs when solidification shrinkage cannot be compensated for by the interdendritic fluid flow. A solution algorithm in which the local pressure and microporosity are coupled is presented, and details of the implementation methodology are provided. The models are implemented in a computational framework consistent with that of commonly used algorithms for fluid dynamics, allowing a straightforward incorporation into existing commercial software. The results show that the effect of microporosity on the interdendritic fluid flow cannot be neglected. The predictions of porosity profiles are validated by comparison with independent experimental measurements by other researchers on aluminum A356 alloy test castings designed to capture a variety of solidification conditions. The numerical results reproduce the characteristic microporosity profiles observed in the experimental results and also agree quantitatively with the experimentally measured porosity levels. The approach provides an enhanced capability for the design of structural castings.