Biological aging of sherry wines under periodic and controlled microaerations with Saccharomyces cerevisiae var. capensis: Effect on odorant series

Wine aged for 2 years in cellar conditions and a batch of non aged wine were subjected to biological aging with S. cerevisiae var. capensis under controlled microaeration. Another batch of the non aged wine and 4 year aged wine in cellar conditions were used as control and named initial and final control wines, respectively. Thirty-five aroma compounds were quantified by GC–MS, and grouped in nine odorants series to compare the microaerated wines with the control wines. Fruity, balsamic, floral, herbaceous, fatty and roasty series increases their values, while solvent and phenolic diminishes by the effect of yeast metabolism. Roasty and spicy series show the higher values in wines previously aged in cellar conditions for 2 and 4 years probably due to the contact of the wine with the wood. The roasty series is dependent of compounds such as 2,3-butanedione, 2,3-pentanodione, 4-ethylguaiacol and some lactones, whereas the spicy series is only dependent on 4-ethylguaiacol. The similarity obtained for some odorant series in wines aged under controlled conditions and wines aged for 4 years in cellar, suggest that the biological aging time can be shortened using a first step for wine aging in stainless-steel under controlled and periodic microaerations and a second step in an oak cask under cellar conditions.     

Discovering a chemical basis for differentiating wines made by fermentation with 'wild' indigenous and inoculated yeasts: role of yeast volatile compounds

Background and Aims:  Winemakers are constantly searching for new techniques to modulate wine style. Exploiting indigenous yeasts present in grape must is re-emerging as a commercial option in New World wine regions. Wines made with indigenous or 'wild' yeasts are perceived to be more complex by showing a greater diversity of flavours; however, the chemical basis for the flavour characteristics is not yet defined. In order to evaluate techniques for making wine with the 'wild yeast fermentation' character more reliably, it is necessary to define the salient chemical characteristics of such wines.
Methods and Results:  Pairs of Chardonnay wines were prepared from the same must and subjected to similar fermentation conditions in the wineries of origin, except for the mode of inoculation. Reference wines were made by inoculation with a Saccharomyces cerevisiae starter culture, whereas companion wines were allowed to undergo fermentation with the indigenous microflora. Of all wine chemicals analysed, only yeast-derived volatile fermentation products showed significant differences between the yeast treatments.
Conclusions:  Inoculated wines were associated with the esters ethyl hexanoate and 3-methylbutyl acetate and formed a clear cluster by principal component analysis. By comparison with inoculated wines, 'wild' yeast fermented wines showed high variability in volatile compounds that contribute to wine aroma, with higher concentrations of 2-methylpropanol, 2-methylbutanoic acid, ethyl 2-methylpropanoate, ethyl decanoate and ethyl dodecanoate potentially being sensorially important.
Significance of the Study:  This study shows that yeast-derived volatile fermentation products are a key difference between inoculated and uninoculated ferments and provides a chemical basis for the 'wild yeast fermentation' character.     

The use of oak chips during the ageing of a red wine in stainless steel tanks or used barrels: effect of the contact time and size of the oak chips on aroma compounds

Background and Aims:  This paper reports the influence of adding oak chips to a wine being aged either in stainless steel tanks or in used barrels on aroma compounds, comparing these wines with those aged in new barrels. Both the size of the oak chips and the length of contact time were considered.
Methods and Results:  Aroma compounds were analysed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry to determine the differences in these compounds between the samples. The results showed that chips release aroma compounds into wine very rapidly, an effect that was clearly seen when they were added to the wines stored in tanks. The wines aged in new barrels continued to extract aroma compounds for a longer time, and higher concentrations were reached in these wines for most aroma compounds. Wines in used barrels with added oak chips behaved in an intermediate manner.
Conclusions:  Although overall quality is better in wines matured in new barrels, the use of oak chips could be considered a good choice for producing short-aged wines and for reusing used barrels under good sanitary conditions.
Significance of the Study:  The rapid spread of technique alternatives to oak ageing justifies studies to assess the influence of oak chips on the chemical characteristics of wines and to evaluate any differences from traditional oak ageing systems.     

三种非酿酒酵母对贵人香白葡萄酒发酵进程及挥发性组分的影响

本文以‘贵人香’葡萄为原料,利用三种商业化非酿酒酵母（戴尔有孢圆酵母、美极梅氏酵母和耐热克鲁维酵母）与酿酒酵母混合发酵酿制白葡萄酒,并对酵母的发酵进程、葡萄酒理化指标、挥发性物质含量以及香气感官品质进行比较,旨在阐述非酿酒酵母/酿酒酵母混合发酵对白葡萄酒香气质量的影响。结果表明,三种非酿酒酵母与酿酒酵母的混合发酵均能顺利完成,但美极梅氏酵母易受到酿酒酵母的抑制。理化指标检测结果显示混合发酵白葡萄酒的酒精含量低于酿酒酵母单独发酵。挥发性香气物质采用气相色谱-离子迁移谱技术进行检测,共检测到34种化合物,接种美极梅氏酵母的葡萄酒中己酸乙酯、异戊酸乙酯、乙酸己酯、γ-壬内酯、δ-辛内酯、己醇、芳樟醇等物质的信号强度最高,整体香气风格最突出。接种戴尔有孢圆酵母和耐热克鲁维酵母的酒样中辛酸乙酯、乙酸丙酯、丙酸乙酯、α-松油烯等组分的含量较高,香气感官特征存在相似性,且均优于酿酒酵母单独发酵的葡萄酒。主成分分析结果能较好地区分不同混合发酵工艺生产的葡萄酒。综上,非酿酒酵母/酿酒酵母混合发酵对提升白葡萄酒香气质量有积极作用。     

胶红酵母与酿酒酵母共发酵对干红葡萄酒香气与色泽的影响

研究优选胶红酵母与酿酒酵母不同混合发酵方案对季风性气候区干红葡萄酒的香气质量、多酚及颜色的影响,优化增香酿造技术方案.实验以陕西合阳梅鹿辄葡萄为试材,设计2种菌株不同比例同时接种和顺序接种策略酿造干红葡萄酒.酿造完成后,对葡萄酒样品的香气成分进行顶空固相微萃取结合气相色谱-质谱联用法定性定量分析,香气特征通过感官量化品...     

Evaluating the Influence of Malolactic Fermentation Inoculation Practices and Ageing on Lees on Biogenic Amine Production in Wine

Biogenic amines are compounds, produced primarily by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) that negatively affect the wholesomeness of wine. Standard winemaking practices can greatly influence the levels of biogenic amines in wine. The aim of this study was to determine the relative contribution of different malolactic fermentation (MLF) practices and ageing of wines on fermentation lees to the final levels of biogenic amines. Wines were made on small scale over two harvest seasons with two red grape cultivars. Treatments included spontaneous MLF, co-inoculated MLF, MLF inoculated after alcoholic fermentation (conventional inoculation) and 4 months of ageing in the presence and absence of fermentation lees of all MLF treatments. Biogenic amine concentrations were measured by high-performance liquid chromatography at key winemaking stages and statistically analysed for the effects of MLF treatment and winemaking stage. Results indicate that the presence of indigenous LAB increased the risk of biogenic amine formation. Inoculation proved to reduce biogenic amine production over time compared to spontaneous MLF and co-inoculation even more than conventional inoculation. The presence of yeast lees during ageing generally led to higher final concentrations of biogenic amines in wines than the absence of lees. This study confirms other works that conclude that spontaneous MLF and uncontrolled ageing on yeast lees are generally unpredictable and pose a risk of biogenic amine contamination in finished wines.     

Evolution of red wine anthocyanins during malolactic fermentation,postfermentative treatments and ageing with lees

A comparative study was conducted on nine batches of wine, from the same initial wine, subjected to malolactic fermentation and ageing in barrels, under different technological conditions: Malolactic fermentation in barrel or in tank, with or without wine clarification, ageing with or without lees and stirring or no stirring of the lees. Samples were taken of the initial wine, of the wine at the end of malolactic fermentation, of the wines after clarifying treatments, and after 3, 6, 9, 12 and 14 months of ageing in the barrel, making a total of 48 wines. As a result of the anthocyanin analysis of all the wines studied, a total of 21 different anthocyanin compounds were detected, which can be classified into four groups: simple glucosides, acetyl glucosides, cinnamoyl glucosides and pyroanthocyanins. During MLF, it was shown that the effect of the container used seems to be more important than the metabolic activity of the bacteria responsible for the process. From application of the LSD test, significant differences were found in the concentrations of all the anthocyanin compounds identified due to ageing time and significant differences were also revealed for most anthocyanin compounds in relation to the manufacturing method, especially the presence or absence of lees.     

Occurrence of lactic acid bacteria and biogenic amines in biologically aged wines

Biologically aged sherry-type wines are elaborated by the so-called 'criadera and solera' system, which essentially involves development of the yeast on the wine surface forming a film velum for several years. Lactic acid bacteria can also develop and contribute to sherry-type wine quality, although their presence and role in this enological process have received very little attention. In this study, lactic acid bacteria microbiota and the presence of biogenic amines were investigated throughout the manufacture and biological aging of 36 samples of sherry wines. Malolactic fermentation was found to mainly take place during the first stage of biological ageing. The incidence and populations of lactic acid bacteria in sherry wines were low. The diversity of bacterial species isolated from the wines was greater than previously reported and included species of Lactobacillus, with prevailing Lactobacillus hilgardii, Lactobacillus plantarum and Lactobacillus zeae and Leuconostoc mesenteroides. The biogenic amine-producing capacity of the isolates was also determined. Five strains were putrescine producers, while another strain was shown to produce tyramine and phenylethylamine, simultaneously. L. zeae was one of the predominant species in wines during the biological aging and seemed to be one of the main putrescine producers. The biogenic amine composition of the wines investigated was similar to that reported for other types of wines. Putrescine was the major amine, followed by cadaverine, histamine and tyramine. The amine contents detected were lower than those usually reported in red wines.     

Nitrogen compounds and polysaccharides changes during the biological ageing of sherry wines

Biologically aged sherry wines are elaborated by the so called “criadera” and “solera” system, which essentially involves development of the yeast on the wine surface forming a film velum for several years. In this work, a study on the changes that take place in polysaccharide and nitrogen compounds during the elaboration of sherry wines has been undertaken. The evolution of monosaccharides derived from polysaccharides as well as of amino acids and polypeptides have been investigated in wine samples at different stages of the elaboration process (young wines, “sobretablas”, “criaderas” and “solera”). Mannose, galactose, glucose and arabinose were detected in all analyzed wines; mannose being the most abundant carbohydrate, particularly in wines that aged longer. Glucose and galactose content also increased during the biological ageing of these wines, whereas arabinose concentration lowered during all period. Nitrogen compounds experimented a decrease and even some amino acids were not detected at the end of the ageing. Considering the increase in mannose and the decrease in amino acid levels, it is presumable that autolysis and growth of yeast occur at the same time during the elaboration of the sherry wines.     

粟酒裂殖酵母与酿酒酵母共同接种发酵对‘黑比诺’干红葡萄酒品质的影响

为研究粟酒裂殖酵母（Schizosaccharomyces pombe）在干红葡萄酒酿造中的应用潜力以及S. pombe菌株与酿酒酵母（Saccharomyces cerevisiae）共酵的最佳比例。本实验以‘黑比诺’葡萄为原料,采用S. pombe SP1260和商业S. cerevisiae红佳酿（Vintage Red,VR）以不同接种比例混合发酵为处理,以VR单独接种完成乙醇发酵后再接种商业酒酒球菌（Oenococcus oeni）完成苹果酸-乳酸发酵的酒样为对照,分析乙醇发酵过程中菌株生物量的变化,所得酒样的相关理化指标、色泽参数、苹果酸及主要挥发性香气化合物含量,结合感官评价分析S. pombe和S. cerevisiae不同接种比例共同接种发酵对‘黑比诺’干红葡萄酒品质的影响。结果表明：菌株SP1260与VR以1 000∶1的比例接种时,VR对SP1260菌株生长影响较弱,乙醇发酵结束后,SP1260菌株生物量为106 CFU/mL;酒样中苹果酸含量与对照酒样无显著差异,苹果酸均被完全降解;酒样的色度值、总花色苷含量显著高于对照;香气组分中的高级醇、脂肪酸含量显著降低,乙酸异戊酯、辛酸甲酯、癸酸乙酯和丁香酚等含量较高,果香、花香较浓郁;感官评分表明,1 000∶1接种的酒样呈深宝石红色,透亮澄澈,酸甜平衡,余味较长,酒体香气浓郁,感官品质最优。综上所述,SP1260与VR以1 000∶1同时接种发酵具有代替苹果酸-乳酸发酵的潜能,能够提升干红葡萄酒色泽,改善口感,增加酒体的果香和花香。     

Use of acacia barrique barrels – Influence on the quality of Malvazija from Istria wines

In order to improve Malvazija from Istria wine quality, we used two types of barrels: oak (of French and Croatian origin) and acacia (of Croatian origin). After 12 months ageing period all of the wines were analysed chemically and sensorially. Results showed marked differences between oak and acacia aged wines, especially in simple volatile phenol and oak lactones concentrations. During the ageing period a significant increase in furfural, 5-methylfurfural, guaiacol, eugenol and trans-eugenol was noticed. Results pointed out the importance of choosing the right barrels (oak or acacia) and time of leaving the wine in the barrels to achieve the desired goal. The highest rated wines were made in acacia barrels.     

Post-harvest control of wine-grape mycobiota using electrolyzed water

Electrolyzed water (EW) has recently attracted much attention due to its efficacy against a broad spectrum of microorganisms. In this study, we investigated the impact of two EW treatments (40 and 400 mg/L free chlorine) on grape mycobiota using culture-dependent and -independent approaches. Moreover, the effect of yeast inoculation on treated and non-treated grapes was also considered. At the end of the fermentation, the wines produced were subjected to chemical and aroma analyses. The results revealed a decrease of about 0.5 log CFU/mL of the total yeast population on grapes surface independently of the dose of EW applied. Yeast inoculation and EW treatments shortened the time needed by Saccharomyces cerevisiae to dominate apiculate yeasts, particularly, 2 days for inoculated and 7 days for spontaneous fermentations. A decrease of acetic acid (about 55%) was also observed compared to untreated spontaneous fermentation. In addition, aroma analysis highlighted a positive contribution of inoculated yeast on the wine aromas, since they had approximately 50 % higher pleasant esters compared to spontaneous fermented wines.Industrial Relevance: Sulfur dioxide is widely used in crushed grapes prior to fermentation due to its antimicrobial and antioxidant activity. However, legislative rules, health risks and negative consumer perception related to its presence and use have resulted in a need to find new sanitizers able to reduce its use. The effectiveness of EW to reduce yeast species able to produce high levels of undesirable compounds was demonstrated. This research introduced an innovative antimicrobial agent, which could assist in the first step of wine production to reduce the use of SO₂.     

天然酵母菌株在葡萄酒酿造中的应用研究

以河北产赤霞珠葡萄为原料,用本土天然酿酒酵母菌株Y14和商业酵母菌株F15酿造干红葡萄酒,并采用固相微萃取结合气质色谱的方法对葡萄酒中的挥发性香气物质进行检测。结果表明,本土酵母菌株在发酵能力方面与商业酵母无明显差别,但在不同酵母发酵葡萄酒中的香气成分种类和含量方面具有较大差别,本土酵母菌株Y14在香气成分生成能力方面具有优势。因此,此菌株具有生产本地特色葡萄酒的潜质。     

Aroma compounds and sensory characteristics of Arneis Terre Alfieri DOC wines: the concentration of polyfunctional thiols and their evolution in relation to different ageing conditions

Arneis is an Italian autochthonous white grape cultivar. This study involved investigating the chemicophysical, aromatic composition and sensory evaluation of Arneis wine in relation to different oenological practices during winemaking and ageing. For the first time, polyfunctional thiols related aromas were identified above their perception threshold in Arneis wine. Moreover, citrus, grapefruit and tropical fruit notes characterized this wine during the first month of ageing, thus suggesting a strong correlation between chemical and sensory results. The concentration of thiols decreased rapidly during the first month of ageing, together with the tropical fruit notes. In particular, the perception of the grapefruit note of the wine decreased in association with the 3-mercaptohexyl acetate content in both the barrel and stainless steel (ST) aged wines. Moreover, the ageing technique clearly affected wine composition and sensory profile; barrel aged wines were characterized both by vanilla and honey notes, and a weaker perception of thiols despite containing a similar concentration to ST aged wines. Within this study, the ability of glutathione to decrease the oxidation of volatile thiols in Arneis wine was confirmed, but under experimental conditions employed, the addition of reduced glutathione did not lead to any statistically significant differences in sensory results.     

The species-specific ratios of 2,3-butanediol and acetoin isomers as a tool to evaluate wine yeast performance

The isomers of 2,3-butanediol [R,R; S,S; R,S (meso-form)] and of acetoin (R,S) were determined in laboratory wine fermentations carried out by 50 yeast strains, 10 for each of the following species, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Kloeckera apiculata, Candida stellata, Metschnikowia pulcherrima and Brettanomyces bruxellensis, in order to evaluate if such parameters might be used to differentiate wines obtained with different yeast species. According to analysis of variance (ANOVA), the strains of the same species behaved similarly, whereas the five yeast species behaved differently so that species-specific profiles were recognized. Moreover, the discriminant analysis grouped the wines into five groups, each including the 10 wines obtained by the 10 yeast strains of the same species. Trials were also included where musts partially fermented by non-Saccharomyces species were inoculated with a selected strain of S. cerevisiae to complete fermentation, and the content in 2,3-butanediol and acetoin isomers was again determined and statistical analysis was performed. Although the final values of these parameters resembled those obtained in pure fermentation with S. cerevisiae, statistical analysis discriminated wines according to the yeast species performing the first fermentation phase.     

本土美极梅奇酵母对玫瑰香葡萄酒降醇及香气的影响

为挖掘具有优良酿造特性的非酿酒酵母菌株,该研究考察了本土美极梅奇酵母（Metschnikowia pulcherrima）与商用酿酒酵母（Saccharomyces cerevisiae)F33顺序发酵对玫瑰香葡萄原酒降醇及香气的影响。结果表明,美极梅奇酵母Mp04、Mp08和Mp17的糖消耗能力较强,降醇效果较好,与酿酒酵母F33顺序接种发酵后,可使乙醇含量分别降低0.38%vol、1.26%vol和1.93%vol。不同美极梅奇酵母菌株对挥发性物质种类和含量影响不同。其中,美极梅奇酵母Mp08与酿酒酵母F33顺序发酵可使乙醇含量降低1.26%vol,苯乙醇含量增加165.49%,萜烯类物质总量增加113.07%,增加新的香气物质香叶醇、橙花醇、松油醇和玫瑰醚,含量分别为108.3μg/L、4 166.7μg/L、99.6μg/L和4 927.5μg/L。综上,美极梅奇酵母Mp08具有较好的降醇效果和突出玫瑰香葡萄酒特征香气的能力,在酿造香气浓郁的低酒精度葡萄酒中具有重要的应用潜力。     

分离自野生猕猴桃的酿酒酵母A12-2和BL20对猕猴桃酒品质的影响

为明确发酵野生猕猴桃果酒的优势酵母,以猕猴桃为原料,采用前期分离的野生猕猴桃酿酒酵母A12-2、BL20及两种商用酵母为发酵剂,在相同试验条件和工艺下,通过对比前发酵和后发酵过程中猕猴桃酒总酸、酒精度、V_C、挥发性香气成分等理化指标及感官评价得分,分析野生猕猴桃酿酒酵母A12-2、BL20酿造猕猴桃果酒的产品特性。结果表明:与商用酵母相比,野生猕猴桃酿酒酵母A12-2和BL20的发酵能力优于商用酵母,其中,野生猕猴桃酿酒酵母BL20酿造的果酒V_C含量最高、风味最优。野生猕猴桃酿酒酵母BL20酿造的猕猴桃果酒:总酸为18.16 g/L,可溶性固形物为8.5°Brix,V_C含量为95.4 g/L,pH为3.72,酒精度为13.7%vol,所测正己酸乙酯、丁酸乙酯、乙酸丁酯、乳酸乙酯和正己醇含量分别为1.80、28.5、0.25、2.00和1.66 mg/L,感官评价得分为86。初步判定野生猕猴桃酿酒酵母BL20更适于酿造猕猴桃果酒。