Caliste 64, an Innovative CdTe Hard X-Ray Micro-Camera

A prototype 64 pixel miniature camera has been designed and tested for the Simbol-X hard X-ray observatory to be flown on the joint CNES-ASI space mission in 2014. This device is called Caliste 64. It is a high performance spectro-imager with event time-tagging capability, able to detect photons between 2 keV and 250 keV. Caliste 64 is the assembly of a 1 or 2 mm thick CdTe detector mounted on top of a readout module. CdTe detectors equipped with aluminum Schottky barrier contacts are used because of their very low dark current and excellent spectroscopic performance. Front-end electronics is a stack of four IDeF-X Vl.l ASICs, arranged perpendicular to the detection plane, to read out each pixel independently. The whole camera fits in a 10 times 10 times 20 mm³ volume and is juxtaposable on its four sides. This allows the device to be used as an elementary unit in a larger array of Caliste 64 cameras. Noise performance resulted in an ENC better than 60 electrons rms in average. The first prototype camera is tested at -10degC with a bias of -400 V. The spectrum summed across the 64 pixels results in a resolution of 697 eV FWHM at 13.9 keV and 808 eV FWHM at 59.54 keV.     

A DC-coupled, high sensitivity bolometric detector system for theinfrared telescope in space

The performance of an AC bridge readout system that has been developed for use on the infrared telescope in space is described. The AC bridge readout provides excellent DC stability, allowing observing strategies well suited to spaceborne observations. The ability to modulate the optical signal slowly allows the use of highly sensitive, long time-constant bolometers. At 300 mK, the bolometers have an electrical noise equivalent power of 3×10^-17 W/√Hz. The total noise of the differential signal, including amplifier noise, is less than 8×10^-17 W/√Hz at frequencies as low as 35 mHz     

Effects of ion implantation on poly(dimethylsilylene-co-methylphenylsilylene)

The effects of ion implantation on the electrical and structural properties of poly(dimethylsilylene-co-methylphenylsilylene), (DMMPS) thin films have been investigated. Ionic species of krypton, arsenic, fluorine, chlorine, and sulfur were implanted at energies ranging from 35 to 200 keV and with doses of up to 1 × 10¹⁶ ion cm². The conductivity of the polymer increased upon implantation reaching a maximum value of 9.6 × 10⁻⁶ (Ω cm)⁻¹ for the case of arsenic ion at a dose of 1 × 10¹⁶ ion cm² and energy of 100 keV. The results showed that ion implantation induced conduction in DMMPS was primarily due to structural modifications of the material brought about by the, energetic ions. Infrared analysis and Auger electron spectroscopy showed evidence for the formation of a silicon carbide-like structure upon implantation.     

Room temperature, high-resolution X-ray spectroscopy with silicondrift chambers

The development of detectors for high resolution room temperature X-ray spectroscopy represents a relevant progress in many fields of application, mainly in out-of-laboratory environments. A new type of silicon detector, the semiconductor drift chamber (SDC), allows one to obtain at room temperature, or with a moderate cooling, a resolution comparable to that obtained at liquid nitrogen temperature with traditional detectors of the same active area. The key feature of the SDC's is the very low output capacitance (about 100 fF) independent of the active area of the device. This feature, together with a good capacitive matching between the detector and the first stage of amplification, leads to high values of the resolution at short shaping times. We tested a simple 6-mm² cylindrical SDC at room temperature and at -20°C (easily obtainable with electrical cooling), by using a specifically designed, low capacitance, JFET as the input transistor of the preamplifier. With a ⁵⁵Fe source, we measured an equivalent noise charge (ENC) of 34 e^- RMS and 27 e^- RMS at room temperature and at -20°C respectively. To our knowledge these are presently the best values obtained for the same active area near room temperature     

Low Energy Dosimetry With Photon Counting Pixel Detectors Such as Medipix

Hybrid semiconductor photon counting pixel detectors like the Medipix detector have several advantages for an use in X-ray dosimetry. The noiseless photon counting principle allows to monitor low photon energies down to 3.5 keV. Due to the small pixel size (55 mum in case of Medipix2) dosimetry at very high dose rates is possible still processing each photon individually. The large amount of pixels in combination with the possible thickness of the sensor layer enables dosimetry at very low dose rates. A method has been developed to determine personal dose equivalents from the number of counts in energy deposition intervals measured with a semiconductor photon counting pixel detector, despite the strong influence of charge sharing effects among pixels. We tested the method experimentally by reconstructing the air kerma free in air for different qualities of X-radiation in the energy range below 150 keV with an accuracy better than 4%. We show that the response of a dosimeter based on a hybrid photon counting pixel detector can fulfill the IEC type testing requirements. The statistical precision is high due to the thickness and the large area of the sensor layer. We estimate that a dosimeter based on the Medipix detector will be able to cope with dose rates of more than approximately 57 Sv/h for mathdot Hp (0.07) or 19 Sv/h for mathdot Hp(10) . We outline the advantages and perspectives of using this kind of detector in a dosimeter in comparison to standard active personal dosimeters.     

PIXE measurements of Kr-sputtered TiN coatings

Titanium nitride films of 30–300 nm thickness deposited via dc magnetron sputtering were irradiated with 150–700 keV Kr ions at fluences up to 2.1 × 10¹⁷ cm⁻². These films were then scanned with a well-collimated 400 keV proton beam and the X-ray yield of Ti was measured both in and outside the Kr beam spot. This procedure results in a precision determination of the average film thickness (± 1% in the case of tens of nm films). The PIXE results are found to be consistent with RBS data of the same specimens. Sputtering yields were determined from the variation of X-ray yields assuming unchanged Ti/N stoichiometry in the implanted area. For thick TiN films (d₀ > 100 nm) the sputtering yields are in good agreement with predictions of the collisional cascade model by Sigmund. In contrast, sputtering of thin layers (d₀ = 30 nm) depended sensitively on the ion energy, being a factor of 2 higher at 150 keV than at 500 keV.     

Schottky junctions on semi-insulating LEC gallium arsenide for X and γ-ray spectrometers operated at and below roomtemperature

This work deals with the study of a Schottky junction used as an X- and γ-ray detector in a spectrometer operated in the temperature range from -30°C to +22°C. The device (7 mm² active area and 100 μm thickness), fabricated on liquid encapsulated Czochralski (LEG) semi-insulating Gallium Arsenide, is designed with a noninjecting ohmic contact which allows biasing voltages up to 550 V. At room temperature (22°C) the energy resolution is found to be relatively poor (15.5-keV full-width at half-maximum (FWHM) at 59.5 keV) due to the large junction reverse current, whose density (7-37 nA/mm² at V_bias=100-500 V) is within the typical values for Schottky junctions on SI LEC GaAs. By cooling of the detector to -30°C, the noise of the reverse current is drastically lowered, thus achieving electronic noise levels around 160-180 rms electrons (1.6-1.8 keV FWHM), At 500-V bias, the ²⁴¹Am spectrum has been resolved down to an energy of 4 keV with charge collection efficiency of cce=97% and a resolution of about 2-keV FWHM for the Np L lines and 2.4-keV FWHM for the 59.5-keV γ photons. The linearity of the detector has been measured to be better than ±0.6% within the explored energy range (14-59 keV). From the experimental spectra, it has been analyzed how either the electronic noise or the trapping of the signal charge contribute to the energy resolution of the spectrometer. The result is that despite the high measured cce. The trapping gives a contribution higher than 1.5 keV FWHM for the 59.5-keV spectral line. A comparison between the experimental results and Monte Carlo simulations, based on the Hecht model of charge trapping in detectors, is shown to give a satisfactory justification of the observed phenomena. A total mean drift length of carriers has been experimentally derived, finding an exponential dependence upon the bias voltage applied to the detector     

Analysis of annealing and ion implantation effects in Ti/TiN contacts on silicon

The effects of thermal annealing and 350 keV As⁺ ion implantation on interdiffusion processes in a c-Si/Ti/TiN system were analysed. The Ti/TiN contacts were deposited by sputtering (Ti, 100 nm) and by reactive sputtering (TiN, 50 nm) on (111) n-Si wafers. Characterization included RBS, SEM and XRD analysis and electrical measurements. During vacuum annealing, interdiffusion is observed at the Si/Ti interface, where intermixing and growth of silicides takes place at 600° C and at higher temperatures. Annealing in a nitrogen atmosphere induces changes in surface morphology and stoichiometry of TiN, which does not affect the reaction at Si/Ti. Implantation of As⁺ to doses above 3.9 × 10¹⁴ ions/cm² enhances intermixing at the Si/Ti interface during post-implantation annealing, while the TiN overlayer is unaffected in structure and morphology.     

Ion implantation doping of Si for optoelectronic applications

We show that the major problems hampering efficient performances of Si in optoelectronic applications, i.e. the achievement of efficient light emission and fast modulation, can be successfully approached by a proper engineering of its optical properties. In particular, the incorporation of a high Er concentration, if concomitant with codoping with other impurities such as O and F, allows to achieve efficient 1.54 μm light emission at room temperature. This emission arises from an electrically excitable, atomically sharp, intra 4f transition of the Er ions. The formation of impurity-rare earth ion complexes is shown to enhance the effective solubility of Er in Si and optimize its electrical properties thus providing a higher excitation efficiency and a reduction of the temperature quenching of the luminescence yield. Furthermore we show that the proper design of a Si light emitting diode, allowing the incorporation of Er ions within the depletion layer region of a p⁺-n⁺ junction, allows to achieve simultaneously high efficiency and fast modulation of the electroluminescence signal. In fact, under reverse bias, Er ions are pumped with a cross section of 6 × 10⁻¹⁷ cm² and decay with a lifetime of 100 μs, which guarantees an internal quantum efficiency > 10⁻⁴ and an emitted power of 30 μW at room temperature. On the other hand, at the diode turn-off, the onset of fast, non-radiative, Auger-type decay processes of the excited ions allow a very fast turn off of the electroluminescence signal.     

四路并联二极管辐射X射线场参数计算

利用二极管的电压、电流计算了发射电子束能谱参数,建立了四路并联二极管阳极靶蒙特卡罗粒子输运计算模型,给出了辐射X射线场参数;将四路并联二极管的每个二极管划分为若干小单元,将其作为点源,采用数值积分的方法计算了辐射X射线剂量分布,并分析了空间不同位置处每路二极管对剂量的贡献。结果表明:真空中,距离四路并联二极管阳极靶5cm位置处,X射线注量为3.55mJ/cm2,光子平均能量为62.18keV,120keV以下的光子占辐射X射线谱总能量的81.84%,电子束转换效率为0.30%;在2 700cm2范围内,中轴线和对角线上的剂量均匀性分别为3.20和6.31;在2 000cm2范围内,中轴线和对角线上的剂量均匀性均小于2。     

Epitaxial silicon carbide for X-ray detection

We present the first experimental results of X-ray detection and spectroscopy by means of Schottky junctions on epitaxial silicon carbide (SiC). The devices have a junction area of 3 mm² on an n-type 4H-SiC layer 30 μm thick with a dopant concentration of 1.8×10 cm at 300 K, the reverse current density of the best device varies between 2 pA/cm² and 18 pA/cm² as the mean electric field is increased from 40 kV/cm up to 170 kV/cm. The devices have been tested with X and γ rays from ²⁴¹Am; the best measured energy resolution is 2.7 keV FWHM at room temperature     

应用于气体电子倍增器的电子学板研制

气体电子倍增器（GEM）电子学板（GEB）在大面积GEM探测器系统中起重要作用。为满足大面积GEM探测器系统中高速电子学信号的传输、实现电磁屏蔽及为前端电子学提供电源等需求,本文设计了8层结构的GEB,并对该GEB原型进行了电气性能、机械兼容性、信号传输和噪声测试。测试结果显示,本文所设计的GEB在320 Mb/s信号传输速度下的误码率小于10^-13,在保证信号高速性和完整性的基础上能成功传输前端电子学信号;通过采用叠层对称式设计克服了大面积GEB生产时弯曲程度高的困难,生产的GEB原型弯曲高度降低了2/3,平均弯曲高度为1 mm,增强了前端电子学在探测器系统中的运行稳定性。     

Effect of forming gas anneals on the photoluminescence from nanocrystalline silicon formed by Si implantation into SiO2 matrix

The blue region of the room temperature photoluminescence spectrum from Si nanocrystallites formed in SiO₂ by Si⁺ ion implantation has been observed for the first time after annealing in a forming gas (10% H₂ + 90% N₂) ambient. Thermally grown SiO₂ on Si substrates were implanted with a dose of 2 × 10¹⁷ Si⁺ cm⁻² at energies of 200 keV and 400 keV. For reference purposes, quartz silica was implanted also with the same dose of 200 keV Si⁺ ions. The implanted samples were annealed in nitrogen and forming gas at 900°C for 3 to 180 min. Both the SiO₂ and quartz samples exhibited luminescence at about 380 nm which was weak, but detectable, before annealing. During extended anneals in forming gas, the intensity increased by a factor of about 2 above that recorded after a nitrogen anneal but the peak position was unchanged. The intensity was greater in samples annealed in forming gas which is due to the additional hydrogen. It would seem that this blue luminescence originates from new luminescent centres in the matrix caused by the Si⁺ ion implantation.     

The effect of coatings on deuterium retention and permeation in aluminum 6061-T6 APT tritium production tubes

The accelerator production of tritium project will utilize spallation neutrons incident on thousands of ³He gas filled metal tubes to produce tritium by way of the exothermic ³He(n,p)³H reaction. Tritons with energies up to 192 keV and protons with energies up to 576 keV are directly implanted into the tube walls. To minimize tritium retention in the tubes and permeation into the coolant surrounding the tubes, it is desirable to have the implanted tritium migrate back to the inner surface of the tubes and rapidly recombine to be released as T₂ and HT. Aluminum alloy (Al 6061-T6) is the primary candidate material for fabrication of the tubes. Aluminum alloy samples implanted with deuterons and protons to fluences as high as 3×10²² D (and p)/m² were studied. Deuterium retention was measured by mass spectrometry during thermal desorption. Approximately 10% of the implanted deuterium was retained. Copper, nickel and anodized coatings on aluminum alloy were studied as possible methods of reducing retention and permeation of the tritium. In these experiments, the Cu and Ni coatings reduced the retention significantly, whereas retention increased in the anodized coated sample.     

EXAFS studies of thermal annealing effects on the local environment of erbium implanted in LiNbO3

X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) has been applied to the study of thermal annealing effects on the local environment of erbium ions implanted at 300 keV (2 × 10¹⁶ ions/cm²) in LiNbO₃. The radial distribution functions change dramatically as a function of temperature and duration of annealing in air. The best simulations of the shells surrounding Er have been obtained with the Nb and Li site positions for Er after annealing at 500°C for 20 h and 1100°C for 100 h, respectively. Moreover, a shared site (Li, Nb) has to be considered after high temperature annealing for 20 h.     

应用于PandaX-Ⅲ实验探测器测试平台的Bulk Micromegas性能研究

探测无中微子双贝塔衰变的PandaX-Ⅲ实验需要一个能同时对多个Micromegas探测器的增益、能量分辨、坏道分布、位置分辨等性能参数进行测试的平台,为此中国原子能科学研究院建立了PandaX-Ⅲ实验探测器测试平台。本文采用由光蚀刻技术制作的Bulk Micromegas对该测试平台进行研究：利用⁵⁵Fe放射源在Ar+10%CO₂的流气情况下,使用基于AGET读出芯片制作的通用读出电子学进行数据采集;运用C++与ROOT软件库编写相应的后端数据分析软件,并对数据进行了分析。测试结果表明,PandaX-Ⅲ实验探测器测试平台各系统工作状态良好,应用于测试平台的Bulk Micromegas探测器具有良好的信噪比,X射线成像效果清晰,对5.9 keV X射线的能量分辨率为19.7%。     

Ion beam enhanced etching of LiNbO3

Single crystals of z- and x-cut LiNbO₃ were irradiated at room temperature and 15 K using He⁺- and Ar⁺-ions with energies of 40 and 350 keV and ion fluences between 5 × 10¹² and 5 × 10¹⁶ cm⁻². The damage formation investigated with Rutherford backscattering spectrometry (RBS) channeling analysis depends on the irradiation temperature as well as the ion species. For instance, He⁺-irradiation of z-cut material at 300 K provokes complete amorphization at 2.0 dpa (displacements per target atom). In contrast, 0.4 dpa is sufficient to amorphize the LiNbO₃ in the case of Ar⁺-irradiation. Irradiation at 15 K reduces the number of displacements per atom necessary for amorphization. To study the etching behavior, 400 nm thick amorphous layers were generated via multiple irradiation with He⁺- and Ar⁺-ions of different energies and fluences. Etching was performed in a 3.6% hydrofluoric (HF) solution at 40 °C. Although the etching rate of the perfect crystal is negligible, that of the amorphized regions amounts to 80 nm min⁻¹. The influence of the ion species, the fluence, the irradiation temperature and subsequent thermal treatment on damage and etching of LiNbO₃ are discussed.     

Investigations of lattice location and mobility of carbon in GaAs using the channeling technique

In order to get information about the lattice location and the mobility of ¹²C in GaAs wafers, the channeling technique in combination with nuclear reaction analysis (NRA) is a powerful method. The targets were implanted with ¹²C ions (2.6 × 10¹³−2.6 × 10¹⁵cm⁻²) at energies between 60 and 3000 keV. This corresponds to implantation depths of about 0.1 to 3 μm. Using the nuclear reaction ¹²C(d, p)¹³C a depth distribution of the implanted carbon is obtained. The relationship between the concentration of ¹⁴C in random and along the 100 and 110 axial directions gives information about the substitutional lattice location of carbon within the GaAs crystal. In addition, we measured lattice defect depth distributions with a 1.5 MeV ⁴He⁺ beam before and after thermal annealing at temperatures up to 600°C.     

D+注入Li4SiO4的表面化学状态及其热解吸行为

锂陶瓷氚增殖剂的氢同位素行为是聚变堆固态产氚包层关心的重要课题。本文将3 keV D⁺注入Li₄SiO₄,采用X射线光电子能谱在线分析注氘前后材料表面的化学状态,同时采用热解吸谱（TDS）实验技术,研究注氘后Li₄SiO₄中氢同位素的热解吸行为。实验结果表明：D⁺注入会改变Li₄SiO₄表面的化学环境,产生多种辐照缺陷和化学键合状态;氘滞留量和热解行为受注氘时样品的温度影响较大,可在一定程度上预测产氚包层中氚的滞留行为。     

Lattice location and electrical conductivity in ion implanted TiO2 single crystals

Single crystals of TiO₂ (rutile) were implanted at room temperature with Ar, Sn and W ions applying fluences of 10¹⁵/cm² to 10¹⁶/cm² at 300 keV. The lattice location, together with ion range and damage distribution was measured with Rutherford Backscattering and Channeling (RBS-C). The conductivity, σ, was measured as a function of temperature. The implanted Sn and W atoms were entirely substitutional on Ti sites in the applied fluence region, where the radiation damage did not yet reach the random level. A large σ increase was observed for all implants at displacement per atom values (dpa) below 1. Above dpa = 1, σ reveals a saturation value of 0.3 Ω⁻¹ cm⁻¹ for Ar implants, while for W and Sn implants a further increase of σ up to 30 Ω⁻¹ cm⁻¹ was measured. Between 70 K and 293 K ln σ was proportional to T^−1/2, (Ar,W) and T^−1/4 (Sn), indicating that the transport mechanism is due to variable range hopping.