Defining obesity in children by biological endpoint rather than population distribution

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association of fatness in children with dyslipoproteinemia and high blood pressure, with the purpose of proposing standards for childhood obesity which are directly related to intermediate biological parameters that predict future disease. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study of a large, nationally representative sample of Australian schoolchildren. SUBJECTS: 1834 children aged 9 or 15 years, with skinfolds blood lipid measurements on 1144 and with skinfolds and blood pressure measurements on 1757. MEASUREMENTS: Skinfolds thicknesses measured at four locations (triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac) using holtain calipers, percent body fat calculated from the sum of four skinfolds, Quetelet's index calculated from weight and height, waist and hip circumferences, plasma total cholesterol and triglycerides determined using a Technicon Autoanalyser II, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDLC) analysed following precipitation with heparin manganese, and systolic blood pressure (SBP) measured using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer. RESULTS: For 9 years old girls, 15 year old girls and 9 years old boys, dichotomising their HDLC and SBP measurements by percent body fat defined the two groups most homogeneous in terms of a measure of within-group variation. The cut-points in percent body fat were in the ranges 29-35% (girls) and 17-20% (boys). CONCLUSION: It is feasible to use the current biomedical status of individual children to define criteria for obesity. A cut-off point of 30% body mass as fat for girls and 20% for boys appears to be an appropriate standard.     

Pulmonary veins: magnetic resonance angiography anatomy

OBJECTIVES: This study was undertaken to investigate the relation between dietary fat composition and adiposity in adult men. SUBJECTS: A sample of 128 male subjects who participated in Phase 2 of the Québec Family Study. DESIGN: The association between adiposity and total dietary fat intake (TFI), saturated fat intake (SFA), monounsaturated fat intake (MUFA) and polyunsaturated fat intake (PUFA) was analyzed in the overall sample. A comparison of body fatness was also performed between consumers of high (4th quartile) and low amounts (1st quartile) of TFI, SFA, MUFA and PUFA. RESULTS: Significant positive correlations were found between the percentage of dietary energy as total fat and body fatness. Men in the upper quartile of TFI displayed significantly more adiposity than those in the lower quartile. Significant differences were also observed when quartiles were established using SFA and MUFA. However, higher intakes of PUFA had no statistical effects on adiposity. CONCLUSION: These results confirm the notion that high fat diets might lead over time to excess body fat deposition. SFA and MUFA intake also seem to be predictors of actual adiposity markers while high PUFA intake seems to exert no effect on these markers.     

Review of methods for transformation skinfolds data to normality for boys and girls from 7 to 19 years old

The most popular method to estimate fatness is anthropometry, especially measurement of skinfold thicknesses. However, such kind of data seriously departs from normal distribution. The present study reviews some methods not age or sex dependent for normalizing triceps and subscapular skinfolds data distribution. Material consists 1408 boys and 1390 girls aged 7-19 from Warsaw measured in 1987-88. The following methods were tested: log(x), log(x-c), -1/x, -1/square route of x. Approximation to the normality were judged by means of the Shapiro-Wilks W test. The results indicate that log(x-c) gave the best transformation of triceps skinfold for boys and girls. The best method for subscapular site appeared -1/x for boys and -1/square route of x for girls. The most popular log(x) is not sufficient for correct normalization. Nevertheless, none of methods have brought required distribution in each age class. It is suggested, depending on the character of material being transformed, to use all reviewed methods in order to achieve proper distribution in each age class.     

Central markers of body fat distribution are important predictors of plasma lipids in elderly men and women

We determined the contribution of body fat distribution, peak VO2, fat mass, and dietary intake to variation in plasma lipids in elderly individuals. Volunteers were a healthy cohort of older Caucasian women (n = 75, mean age +/- SD, 72 +/- 5 years) and older men (n = 101, 72 +/- 5 years). We determined fat mass from underwater weighing, fat patterning from waist circumference, as well as peripheral and truncal skinfolds, exercise capacity from peak VO2, and dietary intake from three-day food diaries. Plasma lipid levels were measured in the fasting state and included total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein (HDL-C), low density lipoprotein (LDL-C), and fasting triglycerides. Older women weighted less than older men, but had higher fat mass, truncal, and peripheral skinfolds. Waist circumference and peak VO2 were lower in older women than older men. Older women had higher total cholesterol (217 +/- 31 vs. 197 +/- 30; p < 0.01), HDL-C (54 +/- 12 vs. 49 +/- 14; p < 0.05), and LDL-C (133 +/- 26 vs. 121 +/- 27; p < 0.01) when compared with older men. No gender differences were noted in fasting triglycerides. Truncal skinfolds were the best predictor of plasma lipids in older men, accounting for between 9% and 30% (r2) of the variation in plasma lipids. Similarly, in older women, central markers of fatness (i.e., waist circumference and truncal skinfolds) were the best predictors of plasma lipids (r2 = 3% to 24%). Total fat mass, peak VO2 and dietary intake were not independent predictors of plasma lipids in older men and women. Indices of central body fatness, rather than total fat mass, peak VO2 or dietary intake are stronger predictors of plasma lipids in healthy older men and women.     

Reliability of body fat distribution measurements. The ARIC Study baseline cohort results. Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the reliability of skinfold and girth measurements, and ratios involving these measurements, commonly used in epidemiological and clinical studies as measures of body fat distribution. DESIGN: Repeated measurements of body fat distribution measures were scheduled on randomly selected participants at the baseline clinical examination of the ARIC Cohort Study, by the same or by different technicians. SETTING: Probability sample of 45-65 year old residents selected from four US communities. MEASUREMENTS: Subscapular and triceps skinfolds were taken twice using a Lange caliper on standardized right-side locations. Waist and hip girths were measured using an anthropometric tape applied at the level of umbilicus and of the maximal protrusion of the gluteal muscles, respectively. Repeated measurements were taken 1-2 h apart. RESULTS: Inter-technician measurements of triceps skinfolds, subscapular skinfolds, waist girth, hip girth, and waist/hip ratio each had high reliability (R > 0.91). The reliability coefficient for triceps/subscapular ratio (R = 0.81) was somewhat lower. For skinfold measures, intra-observer coefficient of variations are lower than the ones observed in previous studies, and inter-technician coefficient of variations are comparable. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm previous findings which indicate that the reliability of girth measurements is greater than for skinfold measurements. As a consequence, the waist to hip ratio is less affected by measurement error than the skinfold ratio. Moreover, the expected gain in reliability from using the average of two skinfold measures, taken in succession, was not realized, indicating that when measurements are taken in rapid succession by the same technician, statistical independence between measures is questionable.     

Physiological correlates of 3-kilometer running performance in male children

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of body fatness, aerobic and anaerobic ability on 3-km running performance in 19 physically active boys (mean +/- SD, age = 10.4 +/- 0.9 yrs). The sum of six skinfolds, VO2 at 8.04 and 9.65 km.hr-1, and VO2max were measured in the laboratory. Run time for 3 km was assessed twice on separate days on a 200-meter indoor track. Prior to each run, every child performed two 55-meter sprints and two vertical jumps. Mean +/- SD values for the sum of skinfolds, %VO2max at each running speed, VO2max and 3-km run time were: 33.9 +/- 14.9 mm; 70.6 +/- 6.6% and 81.0 +/- 7.9%; 54.6 +/- 5.0 ml.kg-1.min-1; 16.41 +/- 2.58 min, respectively. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations were observed between the following variables and run time: sum of skinfolds (r = 0.72); vertical jump (r = 0.67); sprint time (r = 0.59); VO2max (r = 0.61); and, %VO2max at each treadmill speed (r = 0.79 and r = 0.75, respectively). Stepwise multiple regression analysis indicated that the combination of the %VO2max at 8.04 km.hr-1 and vertical jump accounted for 83% (adjusted R2) of the variance in running time (SEE = 1.06 min, p < 0.05). This study suggests that 3-km run time in physically active boys is influenced by aerobic and anaerobic indices as well as body fatness, supporting the notion that children, compared to adults, are not metabolic specialists.     

Rheology and filling characteristics of particulate dispersions in polymer melt formulations for liquid fill hard gelatin capsules

OBJECTIVE: In the postmenopausal years, women develop a central pattern of fat distribution and an increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease (CVD). The possibility that these events are related has not been extensively investigated. The object of the present study was to test the hypotheses that, 1) menopause-related differences in lipids are associated with greater estimated intra-abdominal adiposity, and 2) the relationship between individual adipose depots and plasma lipids differs with menopausal status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional. SUBJECTS: 141 healthy pre- and postmenopausal women aged 35-65 y. MEASUREMENTS: Total body fat by hydrodensitometry was used as an index of whole-body adiposity, the sum of five central skinfold measurements as an index of subcutaneous upper-body adiposity, and estimated intra-abdominal adipose tissue (IAF) as an index of visceral adiposity. Fasting plasma concentrations of total cholesterol (total-C), high- and low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C, LDL-C), and triglycerides were used as indices of CVD risk. RESULTS: Postmenopausal women had greater total body fat (P < 0.001), summed central skinfolds (P < 0.01), estimated IAF (P < 0.001), higher plasma concentrations of total-C (P < 0.001), LDL-C (P < 0.001) and triglycerides (P < 0.001), than premenopausal women. The relationship between central skinfolds and LDL-C differed with menopausal status, being significant in pre- but not postmenopausal women. Adjustment for estimated IAF with analysis of covariance decreased menopause-related differences in levels of total-C, LDL-C and triglycerides by approx 40-70%. CONCLUSION: These observations suggest that, 1) menopause-related changes in IAF may adversely affect the plasma lipid profile, and 2) menopausal status affects the relationship between central subcutaneous fat and LDL-C. Studies with measured IAF are needed to confirm present results.     

Intra-abdominal adipose tissue in young children

OBJECTIVE: Intra-abdominal adipose tissue (IAAT) is associated with the metabolic complications of obesity. However the time course for the development of IAAT is not clearly defined because it is generally difficult to measure directly. The purposes of this short communication are to present data supporting the existence of IAAT in young children using direct measurement with computed tomography imaging, and to examine the relationship between IAAT and anthropometric indices in 16 healthy children (6.4 +/- 1.2 years; 24.8 +/- 5.4 kg). DESIGN: Total body fat (6.4 +/- 3.5 kg) and fat free mass (18.4 +/- 3.6 kg) were determined by bioelectrical resistance. Fat distribution was estimated from eight individual skinfold measurements, the ratio of three trunk skinfolds to three extremity skinfolds (0.78 +/- 0.20), and the waist:hip ratio (0.90 +/- 0.08). RESULTS: Mean abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue (SCAT) was 65.3 +/- 44.8 cm2, and mean IAAT was 8.3 +/- 5.8 cm2. The ratio of IAAT to SCAT was 0.15 +/- 0.08, and the ratio of IAAT to total body fat was 1.44 +/- 0.84 cm2/kg. IAAT was significantly correlated with body weight (r = 0.54; P = 0.03), all skinfold measures (range r = 0.60-0.78; P = 0.02 to 0.0003) except at the calf, fat mass (r = 0.69; P = 0.003), and the trunk to extremity skinfold ratio (r = 0.78; P = 0.0003). There was no significant correlation between IAAT and the waist:hip ratio (r = 0.21). CONCLUSIONS: These preliminary results establish the existence of IAAT in young children and suggest that individual trunk skinfold measurements and the trunk:extremity skinfold ratio provide a better indication of IAAT compared to the waist:hip ratio. However, as with adults, the relationship between intra-abdominal adipose tissue and anthropometry in children is complex.     

Relationship between measures of body fat and gross motor proficiency.

Sought to determine the relationship between body fat and various components of gross motor proficiency. 10 tests of gross motor performance, previously shown by E. A. Fleishman (1964) to be reliable diagnostic indexes of 9 separate gross motor factors, were administered to 56 students in the US Naval School of Diving and Salvage. Six anthropometric indicators of body fat were also obtained from each S. Factor analyses confirmed the structure of the measures of physical proficiency and indicated the presence of a single dimension for body fatness. Tests of the relationships between body fatness and the components of physical proficiency revealed a selective effect where body fatness was significantly related to performance on only 3 of the 9 component measures: dynamic strength, gross body coordination, and stamina. Controlling for S age reduced the magnitude of the correlations by a slight degree but did not otherwise alter the relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Extent and composition of coronary lesions and degree of cardiac hypertrophy in relation to abdominal fatness in men under 40 years of age

The relationship of the extent and composition of coronary lesions and the degree of cardiac hypertrophy to anthropometric indicators of abdominal fatness and the amount of intra-abdominal fat was investigated in a group of 32 forensic autopsy cases that consisted of sudden deaths from violent causes of previously healthy men under 40 years of age. Body height and weight, waist and hip circumferences, and the thickness of the subscapular and abdominal subcutaneous fat were measured; the body mass index (BMI) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) were calculated; and omental, mesenteric, and perirenal fat deposits and the heart were weighed. The degree of coronary narrowing was determined visually, and the extent of coronary lesions was measured by planimetry. The thickness of the intima and intima-media was measured by computerized image analysis. Intimal macrophage foam cells and smooth muscle cells were detected by immunohistochemistry. Significant positive correlations were found between WHR and the overall degree of coronary narrowing and the intima-media thicknesses of the left anterior descending artery and right coronary artery when adjusted for age. Intima-media thickness was also related to tertiles of WHR. Heart weight indexed to height showed a significant positive correlation with BMI, waist circumference, WHR, and the size of intra-abdominal fat deposits, of which WHR was the best predictor of mild cardiac hypertrophy. The results indicate that the severity of clinically silent lesions in the atherosclerosis-prone regions of the coronary arteries is associated with WHR in young male individuals who also have mild myocardial hypertrophy associated with abdominal fatness and an accumulation of intra-abdominal fat. These associations between fat distribution and early cardiovascular changes point to a powerful need for preventive action with respect to weight gain in young men to alleviate progression of the lesions.     

Relations of total and abdominal adiposity to muscle sympathetic nerve activity in healthy older males

OBJECTIVES: We recently reported that skeletal muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) is related to total body and abdominal fatness in a pooled population of young and older males. Both MSNA and adiposity increase with age. Thus, it is not clear if the relation between MSNA and adiposity exists among older adults and if the age-related increase in MSNA is explained by increases in adiposity. We therefore tested the hypotheses that: 1) among older men, those with higher total body fatness and abdominal adiposity have higher MSNA and 2) MSNA is not different in healthy young and older men with similar total body and/or abdominal fatness. DESIGN: Older healthy men (63 +/- 1 y) were separated into higher and lower groups of body fat (26.9 +/- 0.8%, n = 9 vs 21.3 +/- 1.1, n = 10; P < 0.0001) and waist circumference (96.4 +/- 3.5 cm, n = 8 vs 86.2 +/- 1.5, n = 8; P < 0.01). Younger controls (26 +/- 1 y) were then matched with those in the older-lower groups for %body fat (21 +/- 1.1%, n = 10) or waist circumference (86.2 +/- 0.8 cm, n = 10). MEASUREMENTS: Total body fat was determined by hydrodensitometry, abdominal adiposity by waist circumference and resting MSNA by microneurography. RESULTS: Among the older subjects those in the higher %body fat and waist circumference groups had higher (P < 0.02) MSNA (47 +/- 3 and 48 +/- 4 bursts/min, respectively) than those in the lower groups (37 +/- 2 and 38 +/- 3 bursts/min). MSNA was directly related to %body fat (r = 0.52, P = 0.03) and waist circumference (r = 0.64, P = 0.007) in the older groups. MSNA was greater (P < 0.001) in the older-lower groups than in the young controls matched for %body fat (23 +/- 2 bursts/min) or waist circumference (24 +/- 3 bursts/min). CONCLUSIONS: 1) among healthy older men, higher levels of total body and/or abdominal adiposity are associated with higher levels of MSNA and 2) the age-related elevation in MSNA is reduced but not abolished when differences in adiposity are eliminated.     

Prognostic implications of p53 overexpression in cutaneous melanoma from sun-exposed and nonexposed sites

Reduced energy expenditure may predispose children to the development of obesity, but there are limited longitudinal studies to support this theory. We studied 75 white, preadolescent children over 4 y by taking annual measures of body composition and resting energy expenditure (by indirect calorimetry) and two annual measures of total energy expenditure and physical-activity-related energy expenditure (by doubly labeled water). Body composition of parents was assessed at the onset of the study with use of underwater weighing. The major outcome variable was the individual rate of change in fat mass (FM) adjusted for fat-free mass (FFM). The influence of sex, energy expenditure components, initial FM, and parental FM on the rate of change in FM was analyzed by hierarchical linear modeling and analysis of variance. The rate of change in absolute FM was 0.89 +/- 1.08 kg/y (range: -0.44 to 5.6 kg/y). The rate of change in FM adjusted for FFM was 0.08 +/- 0.64 kg/y (range: -1.45 to 2.22 kg/y) and was similar among children of two nonobese parents and children with one nonobese or one obese parent, but was significantly higher in children with two obese parents (0.61 +/- 0.87 kg/y). The major determinants of change in FM adjusted for FFM were sex (greater fat gain in girls), initial fatness, and parental fatness. None of the components of energy expenditure were inversely related to change in FM. The main predictors of change in FM relative to FFM during preadolescent growth are sex, initial fatness, and parental fatness, but not reduced energy expenditure.     

Obesity among offspring of women with type 1 diabetes

OBJECTIVE: To determine subsequent growth and body composition of children born to women with type 1 diabetes compared with controls. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: Follow-up of offspring born to women with type 1 diabetes and controls from an earlier study of diabetes and lactation. SUBJECTS: Seventeen nondiabetic offspring of women with type 1 diabetes and 18 offspring of control women (age range 5.9 to 9.0 years). OUTCOME MEASURES: Anthropometric measures at follow-up included height, weight, triceps and subscapular skinfold thickness. Information on usual nutrient intakes and physical activity patterns was elicited through questionnaires. Body composition was determined from skinfold thickness measures and bioelectrical impedance analysis. A child was identified as obese if he or she met at least 2 of the following 4 criteria for obesity: (1) weight-for-height equal to or greater than 120% of the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) reference median plus triceps skinfold greater than the 85th percentile; (2) body mass index (BMI) greater than the 95th percentile for age and sex; (3) percent body fat (from impedance measures) equal to or greater than 25 for boys and 30 for girls; or (4) percent body fat (from sum of skinfold measures) equal to or greater than 25 for boys and 30 for girls. RESULTS: There were 7 obese children in the type 1 diabetes group and none in the control group (p = 0.007). Obese children did not differ from nonobese children in birth weight, body fat patterning, nutrient intake, physical activity patterns, maternal pregravid weight or blood glucose control during the last trimester of pregnancy. Mothers of obese children, however, had fewer years of education and gained more weight during pregnancy compared with mothers of nonobese children in the type 1 diabetes group (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Obesity during childhood is a significant problem among nondiabetic children of women with type 1 diabetes. The association of childhood obesity with lower maternal education and excessive pregnancy weight gain warrants further investigation.     

Familial clustering of insulin and abdominal visceral fat: the HERITAGE Family Study

Abdominal visceral fat (AVF) is an obesity-related phenotype thought to be associated with insulin resistance, diabetes mellitus, and atherosclerosis. Significant genetic influences on both AVF and insulin levels have been reported. However, information is lacking as to whether common genetic influences on AVF and insulin levels exist. AVF was assessed by computed tomography scan, and fasting insulin was measured by RIA in 512 members of 98 sedentary Caucasian families participating in the HERITAGE Family Study. Baseline data, collected before exercise training, were used in the present investigation. A bivariate familial correlation model was applied to evaluate whether there are familial influences that are common to insulin and AVF before and after adjustment for total fat mass (FM), and to assess the overall heritability of insulin and AVF. The maximal heritability for AVF, before and after adjustment for total FM, was 42% and 50%, respectively; and for insulin, it was 21%. Interestingly, 29% of the familial influences on insulin were also common to AVF, whereas 14% of the familial influences on AVF were shared by insulin. Furthermore, after AVF was adjusted for total FM, these common familial influences were increased to 48% and 20%. Genes and/or familial nongenetic factors with pleiotropic effects seem to influence both AVF and plasma insulin levels to a certain degree. Genes involved in the regulation of lipid storage and mobilization in the abdominal fat depot are potential candidates for these genetic pleiotropic effects.     

Ultrastructural studies of spermiogenesis in rabbit exposed to chronic fluoride toxicity

OBJECTIVE: To compare skinfold thickness measurements with bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) as a measure of body fat for use in a survey of children (the National Study of Health and Growth). DESIGN: Part cross-sectional, part repeated measurement study. SETTING: A junior school in Bath. SUBJECTS: 42 boys and 33 girls aged from 9 to 11 years. INTERVENTIONS: Measurements of BIA, height, weight, and triceps, biceps, subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds. RESULTS: All measurements were highly repeatable with intraclass correlation coefficients > 0.90. The level of agreement between estimates of percentage of body fat derived from prediction equations based on impedance or skinfold measurements respectively was poor: the mean difference (impedance estimate minus skinfold estimate) was 4.67% (95% range -3.47 to 12.82) for boys and 7.81% (95% range 1.27 to 14.34) for girls. The two estimates were found to correlate highly (r = 0.83 for boys and r = 0.81 for girls) because weight, used to convert estimates of fat-free mass derived from impedance to fat mass, was highly correlated with impedance and moderately highly correlated with skinfold thicknesses. The correlations of resistance (R) and (H)2/R with skinfold thicknesses were very low. There was a moderate correlation of R and H2/R with log(weight-for-height index), but lower than that of log(weight-for-height index) with each of the skinfolds. CONCLUSIONS: As currently available equations for converting impedance-based estimates of total body water to fat mass are not fully developed for use in children of varying ages, estimates of body fat calculated from skinfold thickness measurements remain preferable in epidemiological studies of children's health and growth.     

Genetic parameters for sex-specific traits in beef cattle

Data from 3,593 beef heifers and 4,079 of their steer paternal half-sibs were used to estimate genetic parameters of and among female growth and reproductive traits and male carcass traits. Estimates of heritability for adjusted 205-d weight, adjusted 365-d weight, age at puberty, calving rate, and calving difficulty measured on females were .16, .38, .47, .19, and .18, respectively; estimates for calving rate and calving difficulty were expressed on a normal scale. Estimates of heritability for hot carcass weight; retail product percentage; fat percentage; bone percentage; rib eye area; kidney, pelvic, and heart fat percentage; adjusted fat thickness; marbling score; Warner-Bratzler shear force; taste panel tenderness; taste panel juiciness; and taste panel flavor that were measured on steers at an average age of 447 d (weaning age = 185, days on feed = 262) were .50, .66, .58, .54, .61, .48, .66, .71, .26, .31, .00, and .04, respectively. Genetic correlations were positive for heifer weights with hot carcass weight, fat percentage, rib eye area, adjusted fat thickness, marbling score, and Warner-Bratzler shear force, and they were negative with retail product percentage and kidney, pelvic, and heart fat percentage of steers. Age at puberty was genetically correlated with taste panel tenderness but not with other carcass traits. Calving rate had positive genetic correlations with fat percentage, rib eye area, adjusted fat thickness, and taste panel flavor, and it had negative genetic correlations with retail product percentage; bone percentage; and kidney, pelvic, and heart fat percentage. Calving difficulty had favorable genetic correlations with hot carcass weight, retail product percentage, and measures of carcass tenderness, but it was unfavorably correlated with traits that involve carcass fatness. These results indicate that selection for some traits expressed in one sex of beef cattle may result in undesirable responses in traits expressed in the opposite sex.     

Registered image subtraction for CT-, MR- and coronary angiography

The study described regional fat distribution and anthropometric variables in an ethnically diverse sample of women (N = 143) who were between 20 and 30 (premenopausal) or 40 and 50 (perimenopausal) yr of age and of normal weight for height. Measurements included 11 skinfolds (abdomen, biceps, calf, forearm, midaxillary, pectoral, subscapular, suprailiac, suprapatellar, thigh, and triceps), waist and hip circumferences, height and mass. Regional fat distribution for African American, Mexican American, and Caucasian women was described as gluteal femoral. African American women had the smallest waist-to-hip ratio, with larger absolute measures for both the waist and gluteal C than the Caucasians or Mexican Americans. Native American women had an abdominal fat distribution pattern which was explained by more fat on the abdomen rather than less fat on the gluteal-femoral area. Native Americans had a different fat distribution from the other ethnic groups. Caucasians are not a good comparison group for African Americans or Native Americans because there are large differences as indicated by effect sizes in regional fat distribution. Variation within the ethnic groups was larger than differences between the groups for most variables. The distribution within ethnic groups was biased by extreme scores; thus 50-70% of the subjects were similar regardless of ethnic group.     

Serial changes in body composition throughout adulthood and their relationships to changes in lipid and lipoprotein levels. The Fels Longitudinal Study

Few studies have examined the relationships between measures of body composition and lipid and lipoprotein levels in long-term serial data from individuals unselected for cardiovascular disease- or obesity-related variables, and none have considered such extensive serial data as used in the current study. The aim was to examine in such individuals the associations between annual changes in lipid and lipoprotein levels and concurrent changes in total body fat, fat-free mass, percent body fat, and body mass index. Serial data from 1304 examinations of 423 adult white participants in the Fels Longitudinal Study were analyzed sex-specifically in 2 age groups, 18 through 44 years and 45 to 65 years. A regressive analytic approach utilized the long-term (4 to 20 years) serial data of individuals. Annual changes in adiposity, independent of levels of lean tissue changes, before and after age 45 for men and women were significantly correlated with corresponding annual changes in cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol. In men before age 45, changes in triglycerides and high density lipoprotein cholesterol were also significantly associated with changes in adiposity, with the relationship remaining after age 45 in high density lipoprotein cholesterol. Increases in adiposity in individuals are associated with changes in lipid and lipoprotein levels in the direction of increased risk for cardiovascular disease. Adult levels of total cholesterol and low density lipoprotein cholesterol across age and sex and high density lipoprotein cholesterol in men are responsive to changes in adiposity, independent of initial adiposity or lipid and lipoprotein levels.     

Assessment of the nutritional status in Croatian pregnant women by measuring skinfolds

In a transversal study, we assessed the changes of body composition, body weight gain, skinfold thickness and the distribution of body fat during pregnancy in 181 healthy pregnant women in Zagreb. Weight gain in pregnant women was 14.4 kg on average, out of which 5.7 kg was the total increase in body fat. In healthy pregnant women the weight gain of more than 12 kg causes excessive accumulation of body fat and has no effect on the weight of placenta and newborn. There is no significant correlation between the body weight gain of pregnant women and the weight of newborns. The increase in skinfold thickness is neither proportional nor simultaneous. Changes in biceps and triceps skinfolds indicate the dependency on the level of estrogen, and subscapular and suprailiac skinfolds on the level of progesterone in the blood of pregnant women. The index of centripetal fat pattern decreases significantly in pregnancy and is referred to peripheral redistribution of body fat in regular pregnancy. The expected weight of the newborn (eBW) may be determined by the body mass index (BMI) and triceps skinfold thickness.