A relational approach to the implementation of the European Landscape Convention in Sweden

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) aims to promote landscape protection, management and planning and to organise European cooperation on landscape issues. The introduction of the ELC in 2000 created a need for further theoretical work within the field of landscape research, which has historically provided a weak theoretical basis for policy implementation. In this study, a relational approach was used to investigate the ongoing ELC implementation process in Sweden, illustrating government dynamics and highlighting efforts to transform discourses and practices. The conceptual framework used comprised three analytical components (policy community, policy meaning and strategy-making practice) and the relational approach was applied at national, regional and local policy levels. The results revealed both progress and obstacles to ELC implementation in Sweden and confirmed the usefulness of the relational approach.     

Landscape’s physiognomic structure: conceptual development and practical applications

The past decade has seen an increased interest in approaches for the identification and assessment of landscapes, which has been, in part, a response to the European Landscape Convention (ELC). In this article, we review landscape physiognomy, an important component of the Polish approach to the assessment and identification of its landscape. We address the relevance of physiognomy both in relation to the ELC and to the landscape character assessments approach, and then explore the theoretical basis of landscape physiognomic structure. We also expand the existing classification of landscape interiors; this is followed by combining three approaches: (1) physical geography in the field of comprehensive classification of natural landscapes; (2) landscape ecology studies on the spatial structure of land cover patches against the ‘landscape matrix’ and (3) the theory of landscape interiors. Presented ideas create the outline of the concept of landscape’s physiognomic structure.     

New challenges in the field of spatial planning: landscapes

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) highlights the landscape as an holistic concept, which is important for individual and social well being and for quality of life. Landscape questions tend today to fall between the responsibilities of different sectors of society. The implications of the Convention for giving 'landscape' a higher status in spatial planning are discussed. Important challenges for planning that need to be focused from a landscape approach are discussed: the growing urbanization; the development and new roles of the urban fringe areas; new infrastructure landscapes; the mental landscapes of tomorrow; an holistic approach to landscape ecological planning and environmental policies and the need for co-ordination of European planning issues that concern landscapes. Planning for good landscape qualities is not a new issue; many landscape architects and landscape planners have worked in the spirit of the ELC for decades. The importance of educating landscape architects and planners with an holistic approach is particularly addressed. Efforts for a more integrated landscape education, such as the European network LE:NOTRE, already exist and contribute to the implementation of the ELC.     

New challenges in the field of spatial planning: landscapes

The European Landscape Convention (ELC) highlights the landscape as an holistic concept, which is important for individual and social well being and for quality of life. Landscape questions tend today to fall between the responsibilities of different sectors of society. The implications of the Convention for giving ‘landscape’ a higher status in spatial planning are discussed. Important challenges for planning that need to be focused from a landscape approach are discussed: the growing urbanization; the development and new roles of the urban fringe areas; new infrastructure landscapes; the mental landscapes of tomorrow; an holistic approach to landscape ecological planning and environmental policies and the need for co‐ordination of European planning issues that concern landscapes. Planning for good landscape qualities is not a new issue; many landscape architects and landscape planners have worked in the spirit of the ELC for decades. The importance of educating landscape architects and planners with an holistic approach is particularly addressed. Efforts for a more integrated landscape education, such as the European network LE:NOTRE, already exist and contribute to the implementation of the ELC.     

《欧洲风景公约》及其实施导则解析：迈向综合整体的风景园林规划管理

《欧洲风景公约》是第一个将风景作为规范对象的国际公约,这标志着"风景"概念从科学知识转化为行为规范,并成为跨国治理的政策工具。欧洲风景公约作为"软法"的本质特征是其规定性与确定性,精确的概念和严密的逻辑是公约文件的基石。从法规文本解读的角度全面阐释了公约的风景定义及其重要意义;深入解析了公约的总体措施与行动框架,评述了风景知识与风景行动的相互关系;并对公约在国家层面实施的干预机制、具体的实施方法进行了详细的阐述与解释。     

Evaluating Landscape for Shared Values: Tools,Principles, and Methods

The aim of the paper is to discuss the need for innovation in the landscape policies that were proclaimed by the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which promotes a change from policies stressing conservation to policies stressing a management approach to planning new landscapes. This change focuses on the need to define a new methodological approach to evaluate and promote landscape values as well as to define a process leading to shared values in reference to landscape. This article begins its research with the recent implementation of the ELC in some European Countries. On this basis, it presents an alternative definition of landscape, discusses the role of landscape evaluation, and identifies the different types of values involved in landscape.     

Evaluating Landscape for Shared Values: Tools, Principles, and Methods

The aim of the paper is to discuss the need for innovation in the landscape policies that were proclaimed by the European Landscape Convention (ELC), which promotes a change from policies stressing conservation to policies stressing a management approach to planning new landscapes. This change focuses on the need to define a new methodological approach to evaluate and promote landscape values as well as to define a process leading to shared values in reference to landscape. This article begins its research with the recent implementation of the ELC in some European Countries. On this basis, it presents an alternative definition of landscape, discusses the role of landscape evaluation, and identifies the different types of values involved in landscape.     

Landscape Character Assessment as an Approach to Understanding Public Interests within the European Landscape Convention

The European Landscape Convention's (ELC) definition of landscape, “an area, as perceived by people…”, places the public central to any understanding of landscape. This paper argues for ‘just’ involvement of the public and looks at how the focus of landscape as a perceived entity has been taken up within Landscape Character Assessment (LCA), an approach applied in England and Scotland for implementing the ELC. Based on a conceptual framework grounded in perception as a phenomenological experience of landscape and informed by principles of participation, LCAs from 2007 to 2011 have been assessed as to how public involvement has been considered. The results show that only a quarter of all assessments accessed involved the public, and that among these there is great disparity in the degree to which the public is engaged.     

Exploring the national contexts and cultural ideas that preceded the Landscape Character Assessment method in England

Abstract

Countries ratifying the European Landscape Convention (ELC) agree to identify their landscapes, analyse their characteristics and assess the landscapes taking into account the values afforded them by the population. Some UK countries, such as England, are regarded as pioneers of these ideas and implementation of ELC principles even before it was drafted. Since the early 1990s, England (and Scotland) has been ahead of many countries in the development of methods for characterisation and identification of landscapes. However, such landscape assessment methods have been developed within a specific and distinctive historical context. This paper attempts to define the subtext of English landscape identity that may be ‘lost in translation’ or ignored when these methods are exported to other countries. The paper first outlines three major, interlinked aspects of ideas and societal development that have specifically affected development of landscape conservation and planning and landscape assessment methods in England, namely: (i) ideas from landscape conservation; (ii) countryside protection and planning in the early twentieth century; and (iii) institutionalisation and development of post-war planning and conservation practices. The paper also examines Landscape Character Assessment and discusses ways in which the national context may need to be considered when using this method.     

Applicability of European landscape typology in Turkey (Çakırlar Watershed case/Antalya)

The aim of this study is to put forward Turkey as a case study of the applicability of the European approach to landscape characterisation studies at the local scale within the context of the European Landscape Convention. For this purpose, a classification of landscape types with the help of LANMAP typology is suggested at the European scale in a basin in Turkey where there are obvious differences in terms of landscape characteristics. In particular, this study examines the usability of a countrywide thematic database when making this classification. It is understood that a mapping system as well as a common nomenclature of types of land covered at the country scale is insufficient for the suggested methodology for Europe. Later, results of the continuation of a classification system at the local scale for landscape characterisation are discussed, and some deficiencies of LANMAP when characterising the landscapes at this scale are mentioned.     

Integrating Archaeology and Landscape Analysis for the Cultural Heritage Management of a World War I Militarised Landscape: The German Field Defences in Antwerp

The approaching centenary of the start of World War I and the booming cultural tourism at the former Western Front in Belgium, combined with recent urbanisation and agricultural intensification processes, have promoted the demand for a more effective and sustainable heritage management. In addition, there is need for interdisciplinary research on how war and socio-natural landscapes reciprocally reproduce each other in time and space. The focus of this paper is a WWI defence system in the Province of Antwerp (Belgium), some 100 km to the east of the actual Western frontline. Research included the inventory and evaluation of the remaining above-ground relics of military features in a landscape archaeological perspective, based on WWI aerial photographs, historical maps and fieldwork. Landscape types and dynamics were identified from 1918 to 2011, based on a time series of aerial photos and maps, complemented with fieldwork. Second, an overall vision was formulated for sustainable heritage management of the militarised landscape. Both vision and practical recommendations are immediately useful for policy makers and stakeholders.     

Landscape Degradation Modelling: An Environmental Impact Assessment for Rural Landscape Prioritisation

Landscape Degradation Assessment (LDA) of rural areas can play a crucial role in landscape planning. Japan lacks quantitative and cumulative Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) methodologies, especially in the area of LDA. Although a decision support system is in place for very large projects (Class-1) in Japan, EIAs for much smaller projects are non-existent, which often results in ambiguity with regard to environmental problems. To improve the transparency of the decision-making process for rural landscape planning, increase the scale of the assessment of project size to a more strategic local level, and enhance effective communication with decision-makers, a new EIA procedure is proposed with the development of a Landscape Degradation Model (LDM) for rural areas in Japan. The procedure is based on the equation, L_D=Σ kI/V, where L_D represents the degradation coefficient of the landscape compartments, Σ kI represents the cumulative impact of human activities, and V quantifies the vulnerability of a habitat. The value of L_D provides a means for supporting decisions aimed at the quantitative prioritisation of working units and developing respective conservation plans. This methodology is a holistic approach to rural landscape reclamation decision support systems where these LDM findings are geared toward sustainability appraisal and where integrated assessment of the economics of a proposal is recommended.     

Landscape mapping in England using an airphoto based land systems mapping approach

Landscape mapping and the value of airphoto interpretation in the construction of landscape maps are reviewed. The paper examines how land systems mapping, which had its origin as a resource survey method in 1957, is the basis for the airphoto approach, suitably informed by observations applicable to the European countryside and the aesthetic argument inherent in landscape classification. A recently completed example of a landscape map of a district council-sized area (300 sq. km) based on the airphoto land systems method is given. Other mapping methods and current products are briefly noted.     

全尺度林地景观的创造性管理——基于 瑞典农业科学大学阿尔纳普风景实验室项目 研究

20世纪80年代,瑞典农业科学大学风景园林系教授罗朗·古斯塔文森在阿尔纳普校区创建风景实验室,融汇三脉斯堪的纳维亚风景园林的历史源流,即农林、早期自然保护与城市公园,系统性、全尺度地探索一片幼林地风景的创造性管理。风景实验室将林地规划为多林分组合,作为营林、风景园林设计与教学,以及公共游览的同一场所,因循植物景观的自然形态与活态结构,善用林室氛围景观,实践一种协同营林、生态保育和风景审美效用的管理式设计,为发展多用途城市林地提供创新实验场所。在风景实验室教研组发表的项目论文与报告书等文献资料的基础上,说明主要实验原则与方法,解析创造性管理的风景园林设计主线,简述由风景实验室延伸出的设计概念与项目。     

Landscape mapping in England using an airphoto based land systems mapping approach

Landscape mapping and the value of airphoto interpretation in the construction of landscape maps are reviewed. The paper examines how land systems mapping, which had its origin as a resource survey method in 1957, is the basis for the airphoto approach, suitably informed by observations applicable to the European countryside and the aesthetic argument inherent in landscape classification. A recently completed example of a landscape map of a district council‐sized area (300 sq. km) based on the airphoto land systems method is given. Other mapping methods and current products are briefly noted.     

Evaluating landscape changes using vegetation and land-use maps: an integrated approach

Over the past 60 years, European mountain landscapes have been affected by land abandonment coupled with urbanisation through tourist exploitation. The Bormio surroundings (southern-central Alps, Italy) are an exemplary case study for these phenomena. To evaluate their landscape changes of the last 50 years, a sequence of two vegetation maps (1959, 1975) and a land-use map (2009) were harmonised in terms of spatial scale and thematic contents. The cartographic units were reclassified as Landscape Elements (LE) on the basis of their dominant species. Change at landscape and LE level were analysed by a set of non-redundant metrics. The loss and fragmentation of meadows, as well as an increasing recovery of woodlands and a doubling of urbanised areas, characterised landscape changes.

Meadows and subalpine shrublands were highlighted as being the most threatened landscape elements. The advisability of landscape monitoring for the conservation of the endangered habitats is briefly discussed.     

面向国土景观风貌管控的中国国家 公园空间布局研究

中国国家公园作为自然保护地的主体,在国土尺度下保护具有代表性景观风貌发挥着重要作用。中国国家公园体制建设尚处于起步阶段,国家公园的空间布局成为体制建设的核心问题。合理规划中国国家公园整体空间布局,有助于在国土尺度下进行景观风貌管控。景观风貌是一定范围内景观特征的反映。通过引入景观特征评估方法,制定了用于遴选国家公园的综合区划方案,分析了国家公园建设潜在区域,并在此基础上结合分析各国国家公园的面积、离散度等指标,对中国国家公园空间布局关键指标进行限定,以期对中国国家公园的整体空间布局提供参考。主要结论如下：1)中国景观特征综合区划方案包括7个一级景观特征区域、115个二级景观特征区;2)国土面积的25.12%可以作为国家公园建设潜在区域;3)建议国家公园设立的数量为65～133个,国家公园总面积占国土面积的5.23%～10.70%。     

Landscape,heritage and technological innovation: towards a framework of sustainability of cultural landscape in a desert town in India

Landscape heritage and Landscape justice are recent concepts in landscape studies. Landscape heritage speaks about listening to multiple voices in decision-making on landscape and heritage, especially listening to non-experts, and indigenous voices. Landscape justice is about ensuring equal access to natural resources/natural landscape. The study is based on Jaisalmer, a desert town with the only living fort in Asia, located in Thar Desert at the India–Pakistan border. The study proposes a conceptual framework on the sustainability of cultural landscape that is used to reflect peoples’ livelihood around (lack of access to) water. The framework identifies three main dimensions: the shifting natural landscape, unrecognised critical (tangible and intangible) heritage and challenges with water post-Indira Gandhi Canal project, a central government intervention for desert greening.     

Landscape Continuity Analysis as a Tool for Landscape Planning: A Case Study in Istanbul

In the last decade the city of Istanbul has suffered a gradual decrease in green areas because of the growing need for space for new settlements, trade and industry. Landscape continuity analysis takes its starting point from the analysis of built areas rather than the landscape in between. This study aimed to demonstrate the applicability of landscape continuity analysis within a region adjacent to a large metropolis—Istanbul—that is utilised for multiple purposes and composed of an important amount of green areas including Belgrade Forest. The general framework of this research consists of two major steps: 1) quantification of the inferred influence of human activities on green areas; and 2) evaluation of the compatibility between the inferred influence of human activities, and implemented planning decisions (particularly the Forest Management Plan). The results support the use of landscape continuity analysis as a timesaving and cost-effective supplementary tool in decision-making processes. This is achieved by the development and comparison of alternative land-use options, aiming where possible to prevent the fragmentation and alteration of green areas.     

An Inventory Approach to the Assessment of Main Traditional Landscapes in Sicily (Central Mediterranean Basin)

EU policy for the conservation of cultural landscapes is of particular importance for a region such as Sicily (Italy) which is the site of many Mediterranean traditional cultural landscapes as well as new landscapes created by contemporary agriculture. Such variety of landscape, however, is not supported or confirmed by specialised inventories that identify and classify the typical Main Traditional Landscape (MTL). On the basis of these considerations, the objective of the present paper is to draw up a preliminary inventory and present a brief characterisation of MTLs in Sicily, in line with the multidisciplinary experiences and approaches implemented at European and national levels. In defining the typological units, the terminology used to identify Sicilian MTLs was modified by experiences developed on the mainland, with entries such as: bocage/semi-bocage, coltura promiscua, Mediterranean open field, mountain landscape, huerta and terrace landscape. Using different spatialised data layers, including those concerned with the main historical processes of land use and land use change, a total of eight MTLs have been detected, mapped, and concisely described. The distribution and importance of terracing systems within the different MTLs is highlighted as one of the most relevant traditional elements in the rural scenario.