Learning what's taught: Sex differences in instruction.

Research indicates that boys perform better on mathematics tests and girls perform better on reading tests. An investigation of why boys' and girls' performance differs was made by coding 33 teacher interactions with 2nd grade students during reading and mathematics instruction. Teachers made more academic contacts with girls in reading and with boys in math; teachers spent relatively more cognitive time with girls in reading and boys in math; teachers made consistently more managerial contacts with boys than girls; and, although there were no differences in initial abilities, sex differences were found in end-of-year achievement in reading. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in academically talented young students' mathematical reasoning: Patterns across age and subskills.

When a sample of academically talented students in Grades 2–6 was given a test of mathematical reasoning ability, boys performed better overall than girls. The gender differences for mathematical ability appeared as early as 2nd grade in samples tested over a 7-yr period but varied somewhat according to mathematical subskills. There were no substantial gender-related differences on tasks requiring students to identify whether enough information was provided to solve a task; however, boys performed better than girls on tasks requiring application of algebraic rules or algorithms, as well as on tasks in which the understanding of mathematical concepts and number relationships was required. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal encoding effects on the visual short-term memory of learning disabled and normal readers.

Investigated the hypothesis that reading difficulties of learning disabled children are attributable to deficiencies in verbal encoding. Adopting a probe-type serial memory task, 60 normal and learning disabled readers matched on CA (9 yrs old), IQ, and sex were compared on recall performance after pretraining of named and unnamed stimulus conditions. The named condition for normal readers was superior in terms of recall performance. Consistent with the findings of F. Vellutino et al (1972, 1973, 1975), no difference was found in recall of nonverbal stimuli between normal and learning disabled readers. These data suggest that primary reading deficits in learning disabled children are related to verbal encoding deficiencies (visual–verbal integration) and not to deficiencies of visual memory, as suggested by the perceptual deficit hypothesis. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How do the efficiencies of reading subcomponents relate to looking back in text?

The compensatory-encoding model of reading suggests that experienced readers compensate metacognitively for inefficient reading subcomponents or cognitive resource limitations. For instance, readers with less efficient access to information in working memory are predicted to look back in text more than those with more efficient access to information in working memory. Both groups of readers still have good comprehension. One hundred nine adult readers were measured on the efficiencies of selected reading subcomponents. Texts were read from a computer screen 1 sentence at a time. The extent to which readers looked back in text (reread sentences) was noted. Those with more efficient access to information in verbal working memory looked back less, consistent with the model. Theoretical and educational implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reading strategies for children and adults: A quantitative model.

Developed an additive model to account for reading times for 2 different reading tasks (reading for retention and reading for comprehension). The reading strategies of 48 college students and 64 5th graders and individual differences between fast and slow readers were examined. Ss were assumed to have processors that handle the lexical, structural, and meaning information in sentences. The various task, age, and reading speed groups were hypothesized to use the 3 processors for differing amounts of time. The model was supported by word-by-word reading times for 80 sentences and by 9 empirical indices of lexical, structural, and meaning attributes of text. Results show that for skilled adult Ss, relatively more time was spent processing structure in the retention task, and meaning in the comprehension task. Fifth graders had not fully mastered the connection between task demands and linguistic processors shown by adults, and thus used mixtures of the adult strategies. (101 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Math, verbal, and general academic self-concept: The internal/external frame of reference model and gender differences in self-concept structure.

Tested predictions from H. W. Marsh's (see record 1987-17104-001) internal/external (I/E) frame of reference model (measuring cognitive dimensions of math and verbal self-concepts [S-Cs]), and gender differences in the structure of academic S-C were examined through path analyses of data from 231 Norwegian 6th-grade students (117 boys and 114 girls). Math and verbal S-Cs on a cognitive level were defined as success expectations on defined tasks. No strong support was found for the I/E model: Math and verbal S-Cs were highly correlated, and no significant negative direct effects were found of verbal achievement on math S-C or of math achievement on verbal S-C for boys, although a negative direct effect of verbal achievement on math S-C was found for girls. The results differed from previous research measuring evaluative dimensions of math and verbal S-Cs, suggesting either remarkable cultural differences or that academic S-Cs are more complex than has been assumed. The structure of S-C differed for boys and girls; math and verbal S-Cs related differently to general academic S-C. The gender differences are discussed in terms of sex stereotypes. This study has implications for research on academic S-C and gender differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Generative processes in reading comprehension.

In M. C. Wittrock's (1974) generative model of learning with understanding, reading comprehension occurs when readers actively construct meaning for text. Two experiments were conducted with a total of 488 6th graders, in which time to learn was held constant across all treatments. It was predicted and found that the facilitation of generative processes by the insertion of paragraph headings and instructions to generate sentences about story paragraphs during encoding produced the greatest comprehension, followed in turn by instructions to generate sentences, the insertion of paragraph headings, and then by reading the same stories without generative instructions or paragraph headings. The combination of inserted paragraph headings and instructions to generate sentences about paragraphs approximately doubled comprehension and recall in each experiment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in children's mathematics achievement: Solving computations and story problems.

Examined the performance of 144,462 male and 142,305 female California 6th-graders (aged 135–261 mo) on 2 types of mathematics items: computations and story problems. Data represent Ss' responses to the Survey of Basic Skills, Grade 6, of the California Assessment Program. Results indicate that girls were more likely than boys to solve computations successfully, whereas boys were more likely than girls to be successful with story problems. Sex is shown to be a significant factor in predicting student success. Problem-solving success for the 2 types of items is also examined in relation to reading achievement, SES, primary language, and age. It was found that girls had higher measured reading achievement than boys; however, girls who achieved higher scores in reading were nonetheless relatively weaker in solving story problems than both other girls and boys. Little or no interaction was found between SES or language and sex. Age was not found to be a factor that contributes to sex differences in performance. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Predicting reading and mathematics achievement in fourth-grade children from kindergarten readiness scores.

This study examined age and gender differences in verbal skills and visuomotor skills at kindergarten, in achievement in reading and mathematics at Grade 4, and in the link between skills at kindergarten and later achievement (n?=?281). Older children had higher verbal skills and visuomotor skills than younger children, and girls had higher visuomotor skills and reading achievement than boys. With controls for age, verbal skills uniquely predicted later reading achievement, whereas both verbal skills and visuomotor skills uniquely predicted later mathematics achievement. Readiness in the specific areas of auditory memory and verbal associations predicted later reading achievement, whereas readiness in the specific areas of auditory memory, number skills, and visual discrimination predicted later mathematics achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult Age Differences in Self-Regulated Learning From Reading Sentences.

We examined age differences in the heuristic used to allocate effort in learning information from sentences. Younger and older adults read and reread sentences varying in propositional density for recall, making judgments of learning before producing recall. The allocation of effort in rereading items that were less well learned on the first reading was optimized for sentences of intermediate complexity, especially for older adults. These data support a model of self-regulated learning in which readers reduce the discrepancy between current and optimal states of learning. However, self-regulation, which may be procedure based or rely on an implicit representation of the current state of learning, may be particularly efficient for older adults within a region of proximal learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Auditory evoked potentials and hand preference in 6-month-old infants: Possible gender-related differences in cerebral organization.

Normal 6-mo-old infants (10 male and 10 female) were studied to determine if cortical auditory evoked potentials (EPs) recorded to probe stimuli during verbal and musical stimulus presentation provided an index of cerebral functional organization. Furthermore, EP left–right amplitude asymmetries were examined in relation to gender differences and hand-reaching preference in these infants. Six-mo-old girls exhibited EP amplitude asymmetries associated with the stimulus conditions, whereas boys did not. In addition, both boys and girls showed associations between their patterns of EP asymmetry and their hand-reaching preference. The patterns of electrophysiological responses observed and their relation to hand preference suggest that the rate of maturation of the left and right hemispheres differs and is dependent on the gender of the infant. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Referential communication and reading performance in learning disabled children over a 3-year period.

Examined the ability of 30 learning disabled (LD) and 30 non-LD (NLD) 6- and 7-yr-olds to understand a sequence of instructions, communicate the steps in a sequence to others, and rephrase their verbal messages across a 3-yr period using a referential communication task. In order to perform the puzzle-box task correctly, Ss had to execute 6 steps in an invariant sequence. After Ss demonstrated a perfect nonverbal enactment of the sequence, they were asked to communicate all information about how to open the box to a puppet. Upon completion, the puppet feigned poor memory and asked the Ss to explain the step-by-step process again. Subsequently, the puppet requested that Ss rephrase their explanation of each step by either a verbal or nonverbal rephrase request. Results reveal that LD children differed from NLD peers consistently on referential communication over the 3-yr period in terms of listener competence and speaker competence. For LD Ss, the ability to produce competent verbal messages was highly related to reading comprehension both concurrently and 3 yrs later. By the 3rd yr, NLD Ss were better able to rephrase information, indicating a growing awareness of the speaker's responsibility in communication. Findings suggest that the communication measures studied play very different roles for LD and NLD Ss with regard to reading achievement. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Determinants of personal space in young children: perception of distance cues

Two methods of assessing personal space in young children were examined in a group of 24 boys and 24 girls, aged 3 to 6 yr. When sex of peer figures and affect attributed to them were varied, 3-yr.-olds made distance-cue judgements based on affect but failed to use affect cues in structuring personal space. However, 4- to 6-yr.-olds readily perceived and used distance to communicate the affective quality of peer relations. On both measures, perception of distance cues increased with age. Only girls also used sex of figures as a social cue in depicting appropriate distances.     

Adhesion of different bacterial strains to low-temperature plasma treated biomedical PVC catheter surfaces

OBJECTIVE: The precise nature of the differences between intrafamilial and extrafamilial child sexual abuse is not clear. The purpose of the present study is to provide clarification of these differences. METHOD: Archival data containing 1,037 cases of child sexual abuse were obtained from police files in two western Canadian cities with populations of about 180,000. Two trained research assistants coded and transcribed the data. RESULTS: Results showed: (1) earlier onset, longer duration, higher level of intrusion, and greater physical and emotional injury for intrafamilial victims; (2) less use of physical/verbal force, or enticements, and greater use of instructions "not to tell" by intrafamilial offenders; (3) more convictions and longer jail sentences for intrafamilial offenders; and (4) no intra-extrafamilial differences in victim sex preference. CONCLUSIONS: Boys are younger than girls at the time of first abuse in samples of criminal justice and hospital referrals, although only for older aged victims, for example, 8 to 17 years. Although statistically significant, there is little difference in level of intrusion perpetrated by intrafamilial and extrafamilial offenders, both are highly intrusive. Both intrafamilial and extrafamilial offenders use physical/verbal force, with older victims: extrafamilial offenders more often choose older victims, and therefore more often use force. Intrafamilial victims suffer greater physical and emotional injury, resulting from greater intrusion not duration of abuse. It's not clear that victim sex preferences of intra- and extrafamilial offenders exist.     

Gender constancy and the "cost" of sex-typed behavior: A test of the conflict hypothesis.

95 children between 5- and 10-yrs-old watched televised boys and girls who differentially endorsed toys of varying attractiveness. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that behavioral expression of gender norms that arouse conflict would be delayed relative to norms that are conflict-free. Predictions were supported for boys. Gender-constant boys spent more time playing with an uninteresting sex-typed toy than did preconstant boys. When the sex-typed toy was relatively interesting, preconstant boys played with it as much as gender constant boys. Toy play among girls was related to toy attractiveness and the girl's agreement with televised stereotypes. Possible reasons for observed sex differences and previous inconsistencies in the gender constancy literature are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in above-level EXPLORE scores of gifted third through sixth graders.

We examined gender differences in EXPLORE scores when taken by gifted 3rd through 6th graders. Boys performed better on Mathematics and Science Reasoning, and girls performed better on Reading, but effect sizes were negligible. In English, boys scored higher in third grade, and girls scored higher in subsequent grades. More boys than girls scored at or above a cutoff of 14 on Mathematics, and more girls than boys scored at this level on English and Reading. Using a cutoff of 25, the male advantage in Mathematics and Science Reasoning increased, but there was no gender difference in English or Reading. These findings parallel those from studies of gifted seventh and eighth graders: Test performance of boys in Mathematics was somewhat stronger than that of girls, regardless of how performance was measured, but results favoring girls in verbal areas were weaker and less consistent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Measuring exploratory behavior in young children: A factor-analytic study.

A battery of 4 tasks designed to measure curiosity and exploratory behavior (preference for unknown, curiosity drawer box, puzzle box, and preference for complexity) was administered to 113 preschool boys and girls and 109 1st- and 2nd-grade girls. No sex differences were found for the preschoolers on any of the 13 variables from the tasks. Age differences, however, were evident; some indicated higher levels of exploration by the older Ss, and others indicated higher levels of exploration by the younger Ss. Despite the age differences, separate factor analyses for preschool boys, preschool girls, and school-aged girls resulted in similar factor structures indicative of both mode of exploration (verbal, tactile) and style of exploration (depth, breadth) factors for all groups. Results are compared and contrasted to findings from other factor analytic studies of curiosity. (12 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in mental abilities, hemispheric lateralization, and rate of physical growth at adolescence.

Tested the hypothesis that sex differences in verbal and spatial abilities are related to sex differences in rates of physical maturation and that this relationship is mediated by variation in the organization of higher cortical functions. 40 males and 40 females, ranging in age from 10-16 yrs, were tested on 3 verbal measures (including the Digit Symbol subtest of the WISC and the Word Fluency subtest of the Primary Mental Abilities Test), 3 spatial measures (including the Block Design subtest of the WISC and a modified version of the Embedded Figures Test), and a dichotic test of phoneme identification. Late-maturing Ss of both sexes performed better than early maturers on tests of spatial ability, but the groups did not differ on tests of verbal ability. Among older Ss, the late maturers of both sexes showed greater hemispheric lateralization than early maturers. Sex differences on the ability measures, although in the predicted direction, did not reach significance. Results are discussed with respect to the relationship between hemispheric organization of function and mental abilities and the relationship between maturational rate and lateralization. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reduction of children's fear of the dark by competence-related and situational threat-related verbal cues.

Examined the effects of training children in the use of verbal controlling responses for darkness tolerance. 45 5-6-yr olds rehearsed 1 of 3 types of "mediating response": (a) sentences emphasizing the S's active control or competence, (b) sentences concentrating on reducing the aversive qualities of the stimulus situation, and (c) neutral sentences. Ss were trained in a well-lit room. Each S then remained in total darkness until he or she decided to increase the illumination. The duration of tolerance of darkness and terminal light intensity were assessed across 1 pretest and 2 posttraining trials. On a generalization trial the S was to reduce full illumination. Analyses revealed that differential training significantly influenced duration and intensity settings, with the "competence" group generally superior to the "stimulus" and "neutral" verbalization groups. Alternate interpretations of the findings are offered. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is reading ability related to activation dumping speed? Evidence from immediate repetition priming

In parallel processing models, residual activity constitutes noise that must be dumped, and fast dumping is associated with efficient processing. Subjects performed a continuous lexical decision task with repetitions (Experiments 1 and 2). Efficient readers (who had high comprehension and vocabulary scores) showed smaller repetition priming than did inefficient readers, but mostly at Lag 0 (equivalent to 3-sec stimulus onset asynchrony [SOA]). Experiment 3 manipulated the empty inter-repetition interval. It was found that reading ability was negatively related to repetition priming mostly when the SOA was 3 sec, but less so when it was 2 or 4 sec. Experiment 4 failed to find similar reading ability differences when the task was continuous recognition. The findings are interpreted as showing that efficient readers managed to dump residual activity related to subsemantic information in less than 3 sec, whereas inefficient readers required 3-4 sec.