Improving the social status of mainstreamed retarded children.

37 mainstreamed educable mentally retarded (EMR) children in Grades 3, 4, and 5 were randomly assigned to a control group or to an experimental treatment given during regular class activities for the purpose of improving their social status among nonretarded classmates. On the average, Ss were 8–20 mo older than their normal classmates. Each experimental S worked in a small cooperative group with 4–6 nonretarded classmates on highly structured, manipulative tasks using multimedia materials. The treatment was provided in 2 cycles which lasted a total of 8 wks. Sociometric tests were given before and after treatment to pupils in classes with experimental and control EMR Ss. By 2–4 wks following completion of treatment, nonretarded Ss' social acceptance of their experimental peers improved significantly more than that of control Ss. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison, multiple reference groups, and the self-concepts of academically handicapped children before and after mainstreaming.

Predictions adduced from social comparison theory and group reference theory were tested in 2 experiments that assessed the impact of half-day integration into the educational mainstream on the self-concepts of academically handicapped children. In Exp I (50 Ss, 6 yrs 2 mo to 10 yrs 10 mo old), mainstreamed Ss exhibited significantly augmented self-concepts, a result attributed to the availability of multiple comparative reference groups. In Exp II (20 Ss, 8 yrs 3 mo to 11 yrs), a manipulation designed to restrict self-concept-relevant social comparisons to Ss in the academic mainstream produced decreased self-regard, while unrestricted utilization of multiple comparative reference groups produced increased self-regard. Results are interpreted as supportive of the theoretical viability of social comparison theory and group reference theory in educational settings. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correlates of social status among mildly handicapped learners in self-contained special classes.

Studied the contributions of perceived cognitive competence and misbehavior to the variance in the sociometric status of 222 educable mentally retarded (EMR) and 65 educationally handicapped (EH) children in self-contained special classes. Teachers and peers rated Ss on academic competence and misbehavior. Results indicate that the combined teacher ratings of these 2 dimensions accounted for the most variance in both acceptance and rejection of EMR Ss, whereas ratings of academic competence were associated with both acceptance and rejection of EH Ss. Results are discussed in terms of differential factors associated with social status of mildly handicapped learners in special classes vs regular classes. In addition, the data suggest the importance of differences in the characteristics of children doing the rating of both independent and dependent variables. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Affect, personality, and social activity.

Examined relations between social activity and state and trait measures of Positive and Negative Affect. In Study 1, Ss completed scales relevant to 3-factor models of personality and a weekly mood and social activity questionnaire for 13 wks. In Study 2, Ss completed measures of the 5-factor model of personality and a daily mood and social activity survey for 6–7 wks. In within- and between-Ss analyses, socializing correlated significantly with state measures of Positive Affect and with trait measures of Extraversion/Positive Emotionality. These relations were relatively general across various types of positive affect and social events; however, specific types of social events also were differentially related to affect. In contrast, social activity had no consistent association with measures of Negative Affect or the other personality dimensions. The results support a temperamental view of Extraversion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and language skills in autistic, mentally retarded, and normal children.

Compared the sensorimotor skills and play behaviors of 16 normal 16–25 mo old children, 16 mentally retarded children (CA 32–80 mo, MA 17–38 mo), and 16 autistic children (CA 39–74 mo, MA 18–38 mo) to identify deficits in object knowledge specific to autism. There were no differences in sensorimotor skills between the 3 groups except that the autistic Ss were deficient in the capacity to imitate gestures and vocalizations. Autistic Ss showed less diverse functional play, particularly directed toward dolls, and less symbolic play both spontaneously and after cuing. Although functional and symbolic play and the ability to imitate were correlated with receptive language for all 3 groups, sensorimotor skills were associated with receptive language only for the normal and the mentally retarded groups. The observation that autism involves deficits in certain cognitive concepts and not others suggests that representational thought may be manifested in 2 systems, only one of which is impaired in the autistic child. Another hypothesis is that the cognitive deficits manifested by autistic children may be related to their impaired social development, because all the areas of cognitive deficit involve significant social components. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influences on the sociometric ratings of mildly handicapped children: A path analysis.

Hypothesized a model of influence that characterizes teacher and peer perceptions of cognitive and behavioral competencies as mediating variables between observed behavior and achievement and social status. 133 mildly mentally retarded children (aged 7–14 yrs) enrolled in self-contained special classes were observed for attending and disruptive behaviors over 6-sec intervals in round-robin fashion until 10 intervals were collected for each S. Ss were also administered the Wide Range Achievement Test, the Guess Who scale, and a social status measure. Teachers were administered the Teacher Rating scale. Results of a path analysis reveal the following causal sequence or pathway of influence: (a) from observed behavior and achievement, (b) to teacher perceptions of these competencies, (c) to student perceptions of the competencies, and then (d) to social status of the mildly handicapped students. Theoretical and practical implications for the clarification of the dynamics of social status are discussed. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning set acquisition in autistic children.

Compared the performance of 19 autistic 5-13 yr olds (mean MA: 4 yrs, 3 mo) on an object discrimination learning set task with that of MA and IQ matched control groups of normal and retarded Ss. All but 2 of the autistic Ss acquired a learning set. About 1/2 of the Ss in each control group also acquired a learning set. However, the mean number of problems to criterion was similar for both the autistic and control groups of Ss who acquired a learning set. It is suggested that the superior performance of autistic Ss on a task which is believed to be related to MA indicates that the MA of these children may be higher than that which is usually obtained with standard measuring techniques. Results provided somewhat equivocal evidence for a relation between MA, IQ, and learning set formation in the normal and retarded Ss. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood competence and depression.

Examined whether children with both academic and social skill deficiencies have higher levels of peer-nominated and self-ratings of depression than their more competent peers and whether depression levels can distinguish academically skilled children from socially skilled ones. Objective measures of academic and social competence classified 169 3rd–6th grade children as competent (above the median on both measures), incompetent (below on both), academically skilled (above only on academic competence), or socially skilled (above only on social competence). Children completed the Perceived Competence Scale for Children, Children's Depression Inventory, and a peer nomination inventory of depression. Results demonstrate information about academic and social competence best predicted Ss' depression. Peer-nominated and self-rated depression were highest among incompetent Ss and lowest among competent Ss. Peer-nominated happiness was higher among the socially skilled than among the academically skilled. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

WISC-R factor structures among Anglos, Blacks, Chicanos, and Native-American Papagos.

Compared WISC-R factor structures for Anglo, Black, Chicano, and Native-American Papago children from Pima County, Arizona. The samples were randomly selected from school enrollment rosters and stratified by ethnicity, grade level (1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, and 9th), sex, and urban–rural residence (950 Ss). Application of 2 objective procedures for determining the appropriate number of factors for each group suggested a 3-factor solution for Anglos, a 2- or 3-factor solution for Chicanos depending on procedure used, and 2-factor solutions for Blacks and Native-American Papagos. The 2-factor solutions were highly similar for the 4 groups. The 3-factor solutions were similar for Anglos and Chicanos but were substantially different for the other groups. The groups were highly similar in terms of the proportion of variance accounted for by a general factor, and the Verbal–Performance scale distinction appeared equally appropriate for all groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Teacher interaction with preschool children: Attitudes, contacts, and their effects.

Nine teachers and 80 preschoolers were the Ss in an investigation to determine whether teaching attitudes such as "attachment," "concern," "indifference," and "rejection" toward the children were related to the manner in which the teachers made instructional, social, and disciplinary contacts with the children. It was shown that more instructional contacts were made with the attachment pupils than with those in any other attitude group. Also, an attitude of concern led to more instructional contacts than did the attitudes of indifference or rejection. More disciplinary contacts were made with the concern and rejection children as compared with the attachment or indifference individuals. Ratings of the appearance and behavior of the children indicated that the attachment children were perceived most favorably by the teachers. The findings also show that the children evoked similar attitudes from the teachers in certain cases and different attitudes in others. The findings are considered with respect to a child's educational experience. (French summary) (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of the formation of categories by normal and retarded persons.

Investigated the development and fragmentation of categories over CA and MA without the requisite of free recall. 26 kindergartners, 26 4th-graders, and 21 9th-graders, and 24 noninstitutionalized retarded pupils (CA, 11.89 yrs; MA, 8.46 yrs) labeled and categorized 480 chromatic slides of picturable objects. As age increased (a) more categories and superordinates congruent with adult criteria were elicited, (b) more superordinates were formed with more items per superordinate, (c) fragmentation of categories increased, and (d) normal Ss were more efficient in the formation of reliable categories than retarded Ss. Results are compared with other developmental and comparative studies in clustering, emphasizing the importance of the availability and accessibility of superordinates in the development of clustering ability. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Birth planning of youth: Concern about overpopulation and intention to limit family size.

Administered a questionnaire and attitude scales to 669 nursing and college students to assess concern about overpopulation, intention to limit family size, reasons for having children, and views on birth control. Subgroups of Ss also completed 2 or more of the following tests: Rotter's Internal-External Control Scale, Rotter's Interpersonal Trust scale, the Self-Esteem Inventory, the Marlow-Crowne Social Desirability scale, and the California F Scale. Results suggest that concern about overpopulation and the intention to restrict one's own fertility form a unified attitude construct rather than separate opinions. Concern and intention correlated strongly with each other, and relatively less so with the other birth-planning indices. Concern-intention congruity varied with confidence about family size preferred. High authoritarians probably viewed procreation as necessary to role fulfillment, as indicated by their greater opposition to birth control than low authoritarians. Trusting Ss were less concerned about population growth and intended larger families than low-trust Ss. Internal-external control, self-esteem, and social desirability were unrelated to these attitudes. Significant personality-attitude correlations were obtained irrespective of S's social class background or religious affiliation. (27 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Object-discrimination learning set acquisition in young cerebral palsied children in relation to tested and rated intelligence.

Explored object-discrimination learning set formation as a potential means of assessing the intelligence of children with neuromotor handicaps. 40 learning set problems were administered to the following groups, each containing 6 2-31/2 yr. old Ss: cerebral palsied (CP) children who tested as retarded but who were rated as not being retarded, CP children who tested and were rated as being retarded, nonhandicapped retardates, and nonhandicapped children with average intelligence. The CPs who were rated as not retarded performed like the normals; both were significantly better learners than the other 2 groups. The import of these findings for the future assessment of such children and the role that other variables play in such learning are discussed. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Childhood competence and behavior problems.

Examined the relationship between objective measures of childhood competence and behavior problems in 474 2nd–6th graders. Daily classwork measured the academic competence, and peer ratings measured social competence. Median splits formed 4 groups, with competent Ss highest and incompetent Ss lowest on the relatively independent dimensions of academic and social competence. Competent Ss excelled on attitudinal measures of a competent lifestyle and on the Harter Competence (HC) Scales. Teacher ratings on the Behavior Problem Checklist (BPC) attributed fewest problems to competent Ss. Conversely, incompetent Ss achieved the lowest HC and the highest BPC scores. Ss high on social competence and low on academic competence were distinguished by BPC conduct problems and nervousness. Peer nominations of depression on the Peer Nomination Inventory characterized all Ss low on social competence. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learned helplessness in Black and White children identified by their schools as retarded and nonretarded: Performance deterioration in response to failure.

20 Black and 20 White children who had been identified as retarded and nonretarded but were similar in MA (110.2–214.3 mo) were administered concept formation problems designed to reveal use of strategies. When feedback was veridical the groups did not differ in their use of effective strategies, but when feedback became consistently negative the groups diverged markedly. Under negative feedback, retarded Ss showed striking deterioration in strategy usage, but nonretarded Ss showed no deterioration. Consistent with these findings, teachers rated retarded Ss as significantly more helpless than their nonretarded peers on a checklist of relevant school behavior. Additional findings suggest that Black retarded Ss may be more susceptible to helplessness than are their White counterparts. Finally, group differences in verbalizations during problem solving bore little relation to group differences in actual performance. Findings point to helplessness deficits in retarded children that may interfere significantly with expression of their actual abilities. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factorial validity of Stephen's Social Behavior Assessment.

Conducted exploratory factor and item analyses of the Social Behavior Assessment (SBA), using teacher ratings of 301 elementary school pupils from regular classes (mean age 9.4 yrs), 39 learning disabled students (mean age 9.1 yrs), and 62 emotionally disturbed children (mean age 10.1 yrs). It was found that a 5-factor oblique solution was the most reasonable. Factors obtained from item analysis explained more of the variance than factors based on subcategory scores. A shorter revised instrument is proposed that consists of 71 items based on 4 underlying factors—Social Participation/Conversation, Academic Responsibility, Self-Control, and Consideration for Others. This revised SBA discriminated between Ss in regular classes and those enrolled in special education programs. Emotionally disturbed Ss had the most deviant scores on each of the 4 factors. (7 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Processing of information in iconic memory: Differences between nonretarded and retarded subjects.

Compared iconic memory processes of 17 undergraduates and 18 retarded Ss (primarily aged 18–28 yrs; IQ 56–77) in 4 experiments. In Exp I, a partial report paradigm was used in which 6 retarded and 6 undergraduate Ss were presented 6 pictures under 4 intervals (0–500 msec). In Exp II, using 5 Ss in each group the same procedure as in Exp I was used but letters as well as pictures were included. Results show that although overall performance for retarded Ss was poor, they did better with letters than with pictures—a reverse of the finding with undergraduate Ss. In Exp III, 2 retarded Ss were given extended practice and incentive to perform well. Asymptote was reached in 10 days but never equaled performance of unpracticed undergraduates. In Exp IV, using 5 Ss in each group, information load was varied from 1 to 4 items, and a masking stimulus was used to interrupt processing following 6 intervals that lasted up to 250 msec. Results show that (1) there are quantitative differences between intelligence groups in iconic capacity; (2) retarded Ss process information more slowly, a difference that increases with increasing information load; and (3) there are substantive structural differences in iconic memory of retarded and nonretarded Ss. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social comparison, task motivation, and the development of self-evaluative standards in children.

Investigated whether 30 1st graders and 27 4th graders were more interested in comparing with a similarly performing other than with others whose performances were superior or inferior to their own. Ss were given the opportunity to compare performances with a peer on each trial of an achievement task. Ss were given feedback that the peer's performance level was either consistently higher than, lower than, or roughly the same as their own. Ss who were offered comparison with a similarly performing peer (a) chose to compare more often, (b) persisted at the task for more trials, and (c) self-rewarded on a smaller proportion of the trials than did Ss offered comparison with a consistently superior or inferior peer. Those offered a superior peer did not differ from those offered an inferior peer on any of these measures. However, younger Ss compared more often with a similar other than did older ones. Results are discussed in the context of the role social comparison plays in children's establishment of standards for evaluating the goodness of their own performance. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of photoperiod and social environment on sexual maturation in female deer mice (Peromyscus maniculatus bairdii).

Tested the reproductive response of young female deer mice to either a long or short photoperiod combined with the presence of adult males, adult females, or social isolation. 266 Ss were reared on either a long photoperiod (15 hrs light, 9 hrs dark) or on short days (8 hrs light, 16 hrs dark) from birth. Beginning at weaning, females were housed with an adult male, with an adult female, or in social isolation. In Exp I, vaginas opened more slowly in Ss on short days than in those on long days. Vaginal introitus was also retarded in Ss reared with an adult female in comparison with Ss reared in isolation. When examined at 37 days of age, Ss reared with an adult male had larger uteri than those reared alone; uteri were also larger in long-day than in short-day Ss. In Exp II, Ss were killed at 30 days of age; again, uterine growth was stimulated by exposure to either long days or an adult male. As was previously demonstrated for male deer mice, sexual maturation in females is regulated by photoperiod and social cues. Heterospecific social stimuli accelerate maturation in individuals that otherwise would be inhibited by having been reared on a short photoperiod. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)