The interactions between problem solving and conceptual change: System dynamic modelling as a platform for learning

This study examines the interactions between problem solving and conceptual change in an elementary science class where students build system dynamic models as a form of problem representations. Through mostly qualitative findings, we illustrate the interplay of three emerging intervening conditions (epistemological belief, structural knowledge and domain knowledge), the choice of learning strategy and the learning outcomes through a theoretical model.     

Integrating reviewing strategies into shared electronic note-taking: Questioning,summarizing and note reading

This study compared the effects of reviewing strategies in shared electronic note-taking activities, including questioning, summarizing, and note reading, on elementary school student note-taking quality and achievement. A non-equivalent pre- and post-test design was adopted. The participants were 188 sixth grade Taiwanese students in six computing classes. Through random assignment, two classes were assigned to the shared note-taking with questioning condition (SN-SQ), two classes to the shared note-taking with summarizing condition (SN-SS), and two classes to the shared note-taking with note reading condition (SN-SR). Students in each condition were arranged into same-sex dyads. The members of a dyad were assigned to separate computers, seated side-by-side, and required to collaborate with one another on a shared note-taking with reviewing task. The results revealed that the SN-SS students' notes contained more facts and concepts than the SN-SR students', and the SN-SS students achieved better grades on the unit quizzes and overall assessment two weeks later than those in the SN-SR condition.     

Variability in reading ability gains as a function of computer-assisted instruction method of presentation

This study examines the effects on early reading skills of three different methods of presenting material with computer-assisted instruction (CAI): (1) learner-controlled picture menu, which allows the student to choose activities, (2) linear sequencer, which progresses the students through lessons at a pre-specified pace, and (3) mastery-based adaptive sequencer, which progresses students through lessons based on whether or not the student has mastered the given skill. Preschool- and kindergarten-aged children (n = 183) were randomly assigned to one of the three CAI groups and spent 40 min a week, for 13 weeks, using the software program in a computer lab. An additional control group of students attending typical preschool or kindergarten received no CAI. ANCOVA results examining post-test reading ability sum score, covarying pre-test score, indicated that the mastery-based sequencer group significantly outperformed the learner-control and control groups, but was not statistically different from the linear sequence group. Analysis by task, rather than overall reading score, revealed significantly better performance for the linear sequence group over controls and picture menu group on the Initial Sound Fluency task, while the mastery-based sequencer group outperformed all three other groups on Non Word Fluency. In sum, these results suggest that the use of a sequencer is a very important element in presenting computerized reading content for young children.     

Promoting reading comprehension with the use of technology

The research presented here explores the impact of two web-based applications (an interactive, multimedia literacy software and a digital process portfolio) on early elementary students' reading comprehension. Two studies were conducted during the 2010–2011 and the 2011–2012 school years, targeting 26 teachers from elementary schools (grades 1–2), and their students (N = 517) from six English school boards in Quebec, Canada. Analyses of covariance showed that students using both tools performed significantly better (p < .001) compared to controls in reading and written expression as measured by standardized tests.     

Effects of teaching and learning styles on students’ reflection levels for ubiquitous learning

Ubiquitous learning (u-learning), in conjunction with supports from the digital world, is recognized as an effective approach for situating students in real-world learning environments. Earlier studies concerning u-learning have mainly focused on investigating the learning attitudes and learning achievements of students, while the causations such as learning style and teaching style were usually ignored. This study aims to investigate the effects of teaching styles and learning styles on reflection levels of students within the context of u-learning. In particular, we investigated the teaching styles at the dimensions of brainstorming and instruction and recall and the learning styles at the dimensions of active and reflective learning. The experiment was conducted with 39 fifth grader students at an elementary school in southern Taiwan. A u-learning environment was established at a butterfly ecology garden to conduct experiments for natural science courses. The experimental results of one-way ANCOVA show that those students who received a matching teaching–learning style presented a significant improvement in their reflection level. That is, matching the learning styles of students with the appropriate teaching styles can significantly improve students’ reflection levels in a u-learning environment.     

Embedding game-based problem-solving phase into problem-posing system for mathematics learning

A problem-posing system is developed with four phases including posing problem, planning, solving problem, and looking back, in which the “solving problem” phase is implemented by game-scenarios. The system supports elementary students in the process of problem-posing, allowing them to fully engage in mathematical activities. In total, 92 fifth graders from four different classes were recruited. The experimental group used the problem-posing system, whereas the control group followed the traditional paper-based approach. The study investigates the effects of the problem-posing system on students’ problem-posing ability, problem-solving ability, and flow experiences. The results revealed more flow experiences, and higher problem-solving and problem-posing abilities in the experimental group.     

Applying a multimedia storytelling website in foreign language learning

Storytelling is a practical and powerful teaching tool, especially for language learning. Teachers in language classrooms, however, may hesitate to incorporate storytelling into language instruction because of an already overloaded curriculum. English foreign language (EFL) teachers in Taiwan report additional problems such as having little prior experience with integrating storytelling into language teaching, locating appropriate stories, and lacking the cultural and language abilities to handle storytelling in English. On the other hand, researchers have demonstrated successful usages of computer and network-assisted English learning. The researchers in this study have developed a multimedia Storytelling Website to study how web-based technology can assist overcoming the obstacles mentioned above. The website contains an accounts administration module, multimedia story composing module, and story re-playing module. In order to demonstrate the effectiveness of this Website in significantly facilitating teacher’s storytelling and children’s story recall processes in EFL classrooms, it was implemented in one elementary school to test its effectiveness in instruction and in resultant student learning. The results of the study support the significance and the education value of the multimedia Storytelling Website on EFL teaching and learning. If such a Website can be applied within elementary EFL classrooms, the quality of teaching and learning can be improved and students’ enjoyment and success in EFL learning may increase.     

Effects of constructing versus playing an educational game on student motivation and deep learning strategy use

In this study the effects of two different interactive learning tasks, in which simple games were included were described with respect to student motivation and deep strategy use. The research involved 235 students from four elementary schools in The Netherlands. One group of students (N = 128) constructed their own memory ‘drag and drop’ game, whereas the other group (N = 107) played an existing ‘drag and drop’ memory game. Analyses of covariance demonstrated a significant difference between the two conditions both on intrinsic motivation and deep strategy use. The large effect sizes for both motivation and deep strategy use were in favour of the construction condition. The results suggest that constructing a game might be a better way to enhance student motivation and deep learning than playing an existing game. Despite the promising results, the low level of complexity of the games used is a study limitation.     

A concept map-embedded educational computer game for improving students' learning performance in natural science courses

Many recent studies have reported the benefits of educational computer games in promoting students' learning motivations. On the other hand, however, the effect of digital game-based learning in improving students' learning performance has been questioned. Several previous studies have reported that without properly integrating learning strategies into gaming scenarios, the effectiveness of educational computer games could be limited, or may be even worse than that of the conventional technology-enhanced learning approach. In this study, a concept map-embedded gaming approach is proposed for developing educational computer games by integrating concept mapping as part of the gaming scenarios to help students organize what they have learned during the game-based learning process. Moreover, a role-playing game has been developed for an elementary school natural science course based on the proposed approach. From the experimental results, it is found that the concept map-embedded gaming approach can significantly improve the students' learning achievement and decrease their cognitive load. Moreover, the students who learned with the proposed approach revealed a significantly higher degree of perceived usefulness than those who learned with the conventional game-based learning approach.     

Development of a contextual decision-making game for improving students' learning performance in a health education course

Heath education is an important component of the curriculum for fostering children's correct health knowledge and good daily life habits. However, educators have indicated that most children might fail to realize the importance and meaning of health education content owing to the lack of authentic scenarios and daily life experience. With the advancement of computer technologies, researchers have tried to develop multimedia learning content in order to improve students' learning performance. Among various technology-enhanced learning alternatives, digital game-based learning has been recognized as a highly potential approach to motivating students. However, several previous studies have indicated that, without properly incorporating learning content into game scenarios, the effectiveness of digital game-based learning might not be as good as expected in comparison with conventional technology-enhanced learning. In this study, a contextual digital game was developed for improving students' learning performance in an elementary school health education course. A quasi experiment was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the proposed approach by situating the experimental group in the game-based learning scenario and the control group to learn with conventional e-books. The experimental results showed that the proposed approach not only improved the students' learning motivation, but also their learning achievement and problem-solving competences. Moreover, the significant two-way interaction suggested that the contextual game-based learning approach benefited the higher motivation students more than the lower motivation ones in terms of the advanced knowledge, showing the importance and potential of applying contextual games to health education activities.     

Scaffolding game-based learning: Impact on learning achievements,perceived learning,and game experiences

One of the central challenges of integrating game-based learning in school settings is helping learners make the connections between the knowledge learned in the game and the knowledge learned at school, while maintaining a high level of engagement with game narrative and gameplay. The current study evaluated the effect of supplementing a business simulation game with an external conceptual scaffold, which introduces formal knowledge representations, on learners' ability to solve financial-mathematical word problems following the game, and on learners' perceptions regarding learning, flow, and enjoyment in the game. Participants (M_age = 10.10 years) were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions: a “study and play” condition that presented the scaffold first and then the game, a “play and study” condition, and a “play only” condition. Although no significant gains in problem-solving were found following the intervention, learners who studied with the external scaffold before the game performed significantly better in the post-game problem-solving assessment. Adding the external scaffold before the game reduced learners' perceived learning. However, the scaffold did not have a negative impact on reported flow and enjoyment. Flow was found to significantly predict perceived learning and enjoyment. Yet, perceived learning and enjoyment did not predict problem-solving and flow directly predicted problem solving only in the “play and study” condition. We suggest that presenting the scaffold may have “problematized” learners' understandings of the game by connecting them to disciplinary knowledge. Implications for the design of scaffolds for game-based learning are discussed.     

Assessment of the effectiveness of the educational environment supported by computer aided presentations at primary school level

The objective of this study is to assess the effectiveness of the educational environment supported by computer aided presentations at primary school. The effectiveness of the environment has been evaluated in terms of students’ learning and remembering what they have learnt. In the study, we have compared experimental group and control group in terms of learning and recalling what has been learned regarding the effect which computer aided learning environment imposes. Data have been collected through the control grouped pretest–final test model. During the experiment, we have prepared an achievement test, which explains behaviors the students should acquire. According to the findings obtained, a computer aided educational environment has been observed to be more effective than that of conventional education in terms of learning. However, in terms of the permanence of what has been learned, no meaningful difference between the educational environment supported by computer aided presentations and that of conventional education has come out. According to the results of the follow-up tests performed, even though students in the test group have forgotten more of what they have learnt, it has been concluded that students in both groups have forgotten on the same level. Consequently, it has been observed that though the educational environment supported by computer aided presentations has positive contributions to learning activity, it does not have effects on the permanence of what has been learnt.     

A formative assessment-based mobile learning approach to improving the learning attitudes and achievements of students

The advancement of mobile and wireless communication technologies has encouraged an increasing number of studies concerning mobile learning, in which students are able to learn via mobile devices without being limited by space and time; in particular, the students can be situated in a real-world scenario associated with the learning content. Although such an approach seems interesting to the students, researchers have emphasized the need for well-designed learning support in order to improve the students’ learning achievements. Therefore, it has become an important issue to develop methodologies or tools to assist the students to learn in a mobile learning environment. Based on this perspective, this study proposes a formative assessment-based approach for improving the learning achievements of students in a mobile learning environment. A mobile learning environment has been developed based on this approach, and an experiment on a local culture course has been conducted in southern Taiwan to evaluate its effectiveness. The experimental results show that the proposed approach not only promotes the students’ learning interest and attitude, but also improves their learning achievement.     

The development and evaluation of an augmented reality-based armillary sphere for astronomical observation instruction

Based on kinesthetic learning style theory and interviews regarding teachers' experiences applying traditional astronomy teaching methods, a mobile digital armillary sphere (MDAS) using augmented reality (AR) was developed for use during astronomical observation instruction. The MDAS enables visual processes and limb movements similar to those that would occur in actual outdoor experiences to be employed in the classroom, thereby overcoming existing instructional limitations. A quasi-experimental design method was adopted, and 200 fifth-grade students were selected as participants. The use of the MDAS in astronomical observation courses affected students' learning effectiveness and interest. The experimental results indicated that using the MDAS system during outdoor observation activities effectively enhanced both the students' learning of astronomical observation content and their performance of astronomical observation skills. In addition, use of the MDAS effectively increased students' interest in astronomical observations and learning, which had a substantial effect on retention.     

Effects of an integrated concept mapping and web-based problem-solving approach on students' learning achievements,perceptions and cognitive loads

Although students could effectively search for web data with proper keywords and select web pages related to the studied core issue, however summarizing or organizing the retrieved information remains a difficult task for them. Concept mapping is known to be an effective knowledge construction tool for helping learners organize important concepts related to a core issue. To address the problem, an integrated concept mapping and web-based problem-solving environment, CM-Quest, has been developed; moreover, an experiment has been conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of the approach on students' learning performance, learning satisfaction and cognitive load in an elementary school social studies course. The results show that the concept map-integrated approach can significantly enhance the students' web-based problem-solving performance, although the students showed lower degrees of technology acceptance and learning satisfaction in comparison with the conventional web-based problem-solving approach. Moreover, it is found that the students in the concept mapping group revealed higher cognitive loads than those in the control group, which could be the factor contributing to the lower technology acceptance degree and learning satisfaction. As a consequence, it is concluded that the integrated concept mapping and web-based problem-solving approach is helpful to students in guiding them to learn in a more effective way. On the other hand, it remains an open issue to find a suitable way of integrating concept maps into the learning process without introducing too much extra cognitive load so as to promote students' acceptance degree of using technology for better learning.     

The use of a computer simulation to promote conceptual change: A quasi-experimental study

This mixed-methods investigation compared the effectiveness of three instructional approaches in achieving desired conceptual change among early childhood preservice teachers (n = 157). Each of the three treatments employed inquiry-based instruction on moon phases using data collected from: (1) the planetarium software program, Starry Night™, (2) nature observations and Starry Night™, or (3) nature observations alone. Data sources included drawings, intensive interviews, and a lunar shapes card sort. The data sets were analyzed via a constant comparative method in order to produce profiles of each participant’s pre- and post-instruction conceptual understandings of moon phases. Non-parametric tests of significance revealed that pre- to post-instruction gains were significant for all three treatments across all targeted concepts. The Starry Night™-Only treatment demonstrated statistically greater gains for sequencing moon phases than the other two treatments. However, there were no significant differences among the three treatments in regard to participants’ abilities to draw scientific moon shapes or in their conceptions of the causes of moon phases. Thus, the three treatments were equally effective in facilitating desired conceptual change.     

A hybrid approach to promoting students’ web-based problem-solving competence and learning attitude

Fostering problem-solving abilities has long been recognized as an important issue in education; however, past studies have shown that it is difficult and challenging to find effective learning strategies or tools for improving students’ problem-solving abilities. To cope with this problem, in this study, a hybrid approach that integrates the cognitive apprenticeship model with the collaborative learning strategy is proposed for conducting web-based problem-solving activities. Students’ problem-solving performance is examined in such a hybrid learning context. Furthermore, past studies indicate that cognitive load could affect learners’ performance; thus, the influence of cognitive load on students’ problem-solving effectiveness with this new approach is investigated in depth. The experimental results show that middle- and low-achievement students in the experimental group gained significant benefits from the hybrid approach in comparison with those who learned with the traditional approach. Accordingly, a discussion of how to accommodate the needs of different learning ability groups is provided.     

How computers facilitate English foreign language learners acquire English abstract words

This study investigated computer assisted (CAL) foreign language abstract word learning. A total of 13 commonly encountered abstract words at the elementary school level were chosen to be studied in the abstract word learning system. According to the theories in CAL, the abstract word learning system was designed to provide context for language learning as well as flexibility in learning time, paths, and modes. A total of 38 sixth graders engaged in learning with the system. It was found that students learning with the system learned significantly more abstract words than students in regular language learning class. This paper also provides suggestions for further improvements in the CAL system used in this study.     

University students' achievement goals and help-seeking strategies in an intelligent tutoring system

Help seeking behavior in an intelligent tutoring system was analyzed to identify help seeking strategies, and it was investigated whether the use of these strategies could be predicted by achievement goal scores. Discrete Markov Models and a k-means clustering algorithm were used to identify strategies, and logistic regression analyses (n = 45) were used to analyze the relation between achievement goals and strategy use. Five strategies were identified, three of which were predicted by achievement goal scores. These strategies were labeled Little Help, Click Through Help, Direct Solution, Step By Step, and Quick Solution. The Click Through Help strategy was predicted by mastery avoidance goals, the Direct Solution strategy was negatively predicted by mastery avoidance goals and positively predicted by performance avoidance goals, and the Quick Solution strategy was negatively predicted by performance approach goals.     

Advancing young adolescents’ hypothesis-development performance in a computer-supported and problem-based learning environment

Hypothesis development is a complex cognitive activity, but one that is critical as a means of reducing uncertainty during ill-structured problem solving. In this study, we examined the effect of metacognitive scaffolds in strengthening hypothesis development. We also examined the influence of hypothesis development on young adolescents’ problem-solving performance. Data was collected from sixth-grade students (N = 172) using a computer-supported problem-based learning environment, Animal Investigator. The findings of the study indicated that participants using metacognitive scaffolds developed significantly better hypotheses and that hypothesis-development performance was predictive of solution-development performance. This article discusses further educational implications of the findings and future research.