Effects of plasticizers on the properties of edible films from skin gelatin of bigeye snapper and brownstripe red snapper

The effects of type and concentration of plasticizers on the mechanical properties (tensile strength, TS and elongation at break, EAB), water vapor permeability, light transmission, transparency and color of fish skin gelatin edible films from bigeye snapper (Priacanthus marcracanthus) and brownstripe red snapper (Lutjanus vitta) were investigated. At the same plasticizer concentration, fish skin gelatin films from both species plasticized with glycerol (Gly) showed the greatest EAB (P<0.05), whereas ethylene glycol (EG) plasticized films showed the highest TS (P<0.05). Films prepared from brownstripe red snapper skin gelatin exhibited slightly greater TS than those of bigeye snapper skin gelatin (P<0.05) when Gly and sorbitol (Sor) were used. EG, polyethylene glycol 200 (PEG 200) and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG 400) affected the mechanical properties of both films differently. Films generally became more transparent and EAB, water vapor permeability (WVP), as well as light transmission of films increased, but TS and yellowness decreased with increasing plasticizer concentrations.     

Effect of some factors and pretreatment on the properties of porcine plasma protein-based films

The properties of porcine plasma protein-based films as influenced by some factors and pretreatment were studied. Both protein concentrations (20 and 30 g L⁻¹) and glycerol contents (50, 60 and 70 g/100 g protein) had the impact on film properties. Film prepared from film-forming solution (FFS) containing protein (30 g L⁻¹) and glycerol (60 g/100 g protein) possessed the highest tensile strength (TS) (2.48 MPa), while that containing protein (30 g L⁻¹) and glycerol (70 g/100 g protein) exhibited the greatest elongation at break (EAB) (18.33%). Protein and glycerol contents affected water vapor permeability (WVP) and transparency of the resulting films. No differences in protein solubility were found among all films (p > 0.05). Pretreatment of FFS by adjusting pH (2-11) and heating at different temperatures (40, 55 and 70 °C) on the properties of the resulting films was investigated. TS and EAB became higher but WVP decreased with decreasing or increasing pH value of FFS. Heat treatment of FFS with pH 3 and 10 had no impact on TS of the resulting film (p > 0.05). On the other hand, EAB and WVP increased with increasing temperature of FFS at both pHs (p < 0.05).     

Effect of heat treatment of film-forming solution on the properties of film from cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) skin gelatin

Effects of heat treatment at different temperatures (40–90 °C) of film-forming solution (FFS) containing 3% gelatin from cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) ventral skin and 25% glycerol (based on protein) on properties and molecular characteristics of resulting films were investigated. The film prepared from FFS heated at 60 and 70 °C showed the highest tensile strength (TS) with the highest melting transition temperature (T_max) (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, film from FFS heated at 90 °C had the highest elongation at break (EAB) with the highest glass transition temperature (T_g) (p < 0.05). With increasing heating temperatures, water vapor permeability (WVP) of films decreased (p < 0.05), but no differences in L*-value and transparency value were observed (p > 0.05). Based on FTIR spectra, the lower formation of hydrogen bonding was found in film prepared from FFS with heat treatment. Electrophoretic study revealed that degradation of gelatin was more pronounced in FFS and resulting film when heat treatment was conducted at temperature above 70 °C. Thus, heat treatment of FFS directly affected the properties of resulting films.     

Effects of plasticizers, pH and heating of film-forming solution on the properties of pea protein isolate films

Effects of glycerol (3-7% w/w) and sorbitol (4-8% w/w) concentration, pH (7.0, 9.0, 11.0) and heating (90 °C, 20 min) of film-forming solution (FFS) on the water vapor permeability (WVP), moisture content (MC), solubility, light transmission and transparency of pea protein isolate (PPI) films were investigated. Films plasticized with sorbitol exhibited significantly lower WVP, lower MC and higher solubility, in comparison with glycerol-plasticized films. Increasing glycerol content of the films led to increases in WVP and MC but did not affect film solubility. In contrast, increase in sorbitol content had no effect on permeability and MC but resulted in increased film solubility. Moisture sorption isotherms of PPI films suggested that the difference in WVP observed among films plasticized with glycerol and sorbitol might be due to the different hygroscopicity of these plasticizers. The pH of FFS did not have a significant effect on WVP and MC. Solubility of PPI films formed from non-heated FFS was not affected by pH, whereas solubility of films formed from heat-treated FFS generally increased when pH was increased from 7.0 to 11.0. Heating of FFS resulted in improved film transparency. All tested films were characterized by excellent ability to absorb UV radiation. Microstructural observation by scanning electron microscopy did not show differences between sorbitol- and glycerol-plasticized films.     

Effects of partial hydrolysis and plasticizer content on the properties of film from cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) skin gelatin

Properties of film from cuttlefish (Sepia pharaonis) ventral skin gelatin with different degree of hydrolysis (DH: 0.40, 0.80 and 1.20%) added with glycerol as plasticizer at various levels (10, 15 and 20%, based on protein) were investigated. Films prepared from gelatin with all DH had the lower tensile strength (TS) and elongation at break (EAB) but higher water vapor permeability (WVP), compared with the control film (without hydrolysis) (p < 0.05). At the same glycerol content, both TS and EAB decreased, while WVP increased (p < 0.05) with increasing %DH. At the same DH, TS generally decreased as glycerol content increased (p < 0.05), however glycerol content had no effect on EAB when gelatins with 0.80 and 1.20% DH were used (p > 0.05). DH and glycerol content had no marked impact on color and the difference in color (ΔE^∗) of resulting films. Electrophoretic study revealed that degradation of gelatin and their corresponding films was more pronounced with increased %DH, resulting in the lower mechanical properties of films. Based on FTIR spectra, with the increasing %DH as well as glycerol content, higher amplitudes for amide-A and amide-B peaks were observed, compared with film from gelatin without hydrolysis (control film) due to the increased –NH₂ group caused by hydrolysis and the lower interaction of –NH₂ group in the presence of higher glycerol. Thermo-gravimetric analysis indicated that film prepared from gelatin with 1.20% DH exhibited the higher heat susceptibility and weight loss in the temperature range of 50–600 °C, compared with control film. Thus, both chain length of gelatin and glycerol content directly affected the properties of cuttlefish skin gelatin films.     

Preparation and properties of dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose crosslinked gelatin edible films

Glycerol-plasticized gelatin edible films with a new kind of dialdehyde polysaccharide, dialdehyde carboxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) as crosslinking agent are successful prepared using casting techniques. The mechanical properties, thermal stability, light barrier properties, swelling behavior as well as water vapor permeability (WVP) of the gelatin-DCMC films are investigated. The results indicate that the addition of DCMC causes tensile strength (TS) and thermal stability to increase and elongation at break (EB) to decrease, suggesting the occurrence of crosslinking between gelatin and DCMC. The light barrier measurements present high values of transparency at 280 nm and low values of transparency at 600 nm of the gelatin-DCMC films, indicating that gelatin-DCMC films are very transparent (lower in transparency value) while they have excellent barrier properties against UV light. Moreover, the values of transparency at 280 nm increase with the increased DCMC and glycerol content, suggesting the potential preventive effect of gelatin-DCMC films on the retardation of product oxidation induced by UV light. Furthermore, the addition of DCMC can greatly decrease the water vapor permeability (WVP) and equilibrium swelling ratio (ESR) down to values about 1.5 × 10⁻¹⁰ g m/m² s Pa and 150%, revealing the potential of DCMC in reducing the water sensitivity of gelatin-based films. In common for hygroscopic plasticizer in edible films, the addition of glycerol gives increase of EB and WVP and decrease of thermal stabilities and ESR of the gelatin-DCMC films.     

马哈鱼鱼皮明胶提取温度和甘油质量浓度对其成膜特性的影响

明胶提取温度和甘油质量浓度是影响明胶膜性质的基本因素。本研究以马哈鱼（Oncorhynchus keta） 鱼皮为原料,采用不同温度（40、50、60、70、80、90 ℃）提取明胶,考察不同甘油质量浓度（1.1、1.2、 1.5 g/100 mL）下明胶膜的厚度、机械性能、光学性质、微观结构和红外特性。研究发现,40、50、60 ℃明胶 膜的厚度高于70、80、90 ℃明胶膜的厚度（P＜0.05）。50、60 ℃膜的拉伸强度（tensile strength,TS）高于 70、80、90 ℃膜的（P＜0.05）;添加1.5 g/100 mL甘油,膜的断裂伸长率随提取温度升高而上升（P＜0.05）; 50、70、80 ℃膜的TS随甘油质量浓度升高而下降（P＜0.05）。色差分析表明,膜的a*值随提取温度升高而上升 （P＜0.05）。水蒸气透过率随提取温度和甘油质量浓度的升高而升高（P＜0.05）。明胶膜于200、280 nm波长处 的透光率为0.00%,350～800 nm范围内的透光率为46.53%～74.57%,60 ℃膜的透光率低于40、50 ℃膜的透光率 （P＜0.05）。衰减全反射傅里叶变换红外光谱分析表明膜的图谱呈现典型酰胺A、B、Ⅰ、Ⅱ、Ⅲ带,酰胺A带随 提取温度的升高向低波数移动,且振幅随甘油质量浓度升高而增加。扫描电子显微镜结果显示,膜的截面和表面未 呈现明显断裂或空隙。以上结果表明,温度对马哈鱼鱼皮明胶膜的机械性能、透水性、颜色、透光率影响显著,甘 油质量浓度仅对前二者影响显著,可通过优化提取温度与甘油质量浓度改善马哈鱼鱼皮明胶膜性质。     

Starch-gelatin edible films: Water vapor permeability and mechanical properties as affected by plasticizers

Physical and mechanical properties of edible films based on blends of sago starch and fish gelatin plasticized with glycerol or sorbitol (25%, w/w) were investigated. Film forming solutions of different ratios of sago starch to fish gelatin (1:0, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, and 5:1) were used and cast at room temperature. Amylose content of sago starch was between 32 and 34% and the protein content of the fish gelatin was found to be 81.3%. The findings of this study showed that the addition of fish gelatin in starch solutions has a significant effect (p < 0.05), resulting in films with lower tensile strength (TS) and higher water vapor permeability (WVP). On the other hand, increasing protein content (from 10.9% to 21.6%) in film samples plasticized with sorbitol showed significantly lower (p < 0.05) TS but no trend was observed in % elongation-at-break (EAB) and no differences in WVP. However, TS decreased with higher protein content in the samples when either plasticizers were used in general, but no significance differences was observed among the samples (p < 0.05) with glycerol with exception to film with high protein content (21.6%) only and no trend was observed in % EAB among samples as well. Significant difference (p < 0.05) was observed in TS and viscosity between different formulations with sorbitol. The morphology study of the sago starch/fish gelatin films showed smoother surfaces with decreasing protein in the samples with either plasticizer. DSC scans showed that plasticizers and protein content incorporated with sago starch films reduced the glass transition temperature (T_g) and melting temperature (T_m) and the melting enthalpy (ΔH_m). In this study, observation of a single T_g is an indication of the compatibility of the sago starch and fish gelatin polymers to form films at the concentration levels used.     

Fatty acids and their sucrose esters affect the properties of fish skin gelatin-based film

The effects of fatty acids (FA) [palmitic acid (PA) and stearic acid (SA)] and their sucrose esters (FASE) on the mechanical properties, water vapor permeability (WVP), light transmission, and color of films from bigeye snapper and brownstripe red snapper skin gelatins were investigated. Tensile strength (TS) of films generally decreased with the addition of FA (p<0.05), while gradually increased with increasing FASE amount (p<0.05). WVP of films generally decreased with increasing amount of FA or FASE (p<0.05). However, films containing FASE exhibited the superior WVP barrier property to those added with FA. Marked increase in elongation at break (EAB) was observed when either FA or FASE at a level of 25% substitution was incorporated. Light transmission of films in both UV (200–280 nm) and visible ranges (350–800 nm) decreased with increasing FA amount. Films added with FASE were generally more transparent than those with FA. Chain length of FA or FASE affected the properties of films differently, depending upon gelatin sources. Therefore, the properties of fish skin gelatin-based films, especially water vapor barrier, could be improved by the addition of FA or FASE.     

Development and characterization of cassava starch and soy protein concentrate based edible films

The sensory attributes, mechanical, water vapour permeability (WVP) and solubility properties of cassava starch and soy protein concentrate (SPC)‐based edible films of varying levels of glycerol were studied. Addition of SPC and glycerol up to 30% and 20%, respectively, reduced stickiness and improved colour and appearance of the films. Tensile strength (TS), elastic modulus (EM) and elongation at break (EAB) of films increased, while film solubility (FS) and WVP decreased with SPC and glycerol up to 50% and 20% level, respectively, ranging from 20.33 to 26.94 MPa (TS), 41.33 to 72.76 MPa (EM), 7.90 to 12.28 MPa (EAB), 15.07 to 31.90% (FS) and 2.62 to 4.13 g H₂O mm m^?2 day kPa (WVP). The TS, EAB and WVP were higher for the biofilms than for low‐density polyethylene and cellophane films.     

Properties and antioxidant activity of fish skin gelatin film incorporated with citrus essential oils

Properties of protein-based film from fish skin gelatin incorporated with different citrus essential oils, including bergamot, kaffir lime, lemon and lime (50% based on protein) in the presence of 20% and 30% glycerol were investigated. Films containing 20% glycerol had higher tensile strength (TS) but lower elongation at break (EAB), compared with those prepared with 30% glycerol, regardless of essential oils incorporated (p < 0.05). Films incorporated with essential oils, especially from lime, at both glycerol levels showed the lower TS but higher EAB than the control films (without incorporated essential oil) (p < 0.05). Water vapour permeability (WVP) of films containing essential oils was lower than that of control films for both glycerol levels (p < 0.05). Films with essential oils had varying ΔE^* (total colour difference), where the highest value was observed in that added with bergamot essential oil (p < 0.05). Higher glycerol content increased EAB and WVP but decreased TS of films. Fourier transforms infrared (FTIR) spectra indicated that films added with essential oils exhibited higher hydrophobicity with higher amplitude at wavenumber of 2874–2926 cm⁻¹ and 1731–1742 cm⁻¹ than control film. Film incorporated with essential oils exhibited slightly lower thermal degradation resistance, compared to the control film. Varying effect of essential oil on thermal degradation temperature and weight loss was noticeable, but all films prepared using 20% glycerol had higher thermal degradation temperature with lower weight loss, compared with those containing 30% glycerol. Films added with all types of essential oils had rough cross-section, compared with control films, irrespective of glycerol levels. However, smooth surface was observed in all film samples. Film incorporated with lemon essential oil showed the highest ABTS radical scavenging activity and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (p < 0.05), while the other films had lower activity. Thus, the incorporation of different essential oils and glycerol levels directly affected the properties of gelatin-based film from fish skin.     

Characterization of edible film fabricated with channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) gelatin extract using selected pretreatment methods

ABSTRACT:  Farm-raised catfish are important to the economy of the southeastern states in the United States, and catfish processing produces about 55% of by-products for inexpensive sale. Therefore, the utilization of catfish by-products is of great interest to the catfish industry. The objectives of this research were to determine the optimum pretreatment method to extract catfish gelatin for edible film application, and to characterize physical, mechanical, and barrier properties of edible films fabricated with catfish skin gelatin. Catfish skins obtained from a local plant were treated with 6 selected pretreatment methods. The main extraction was performed with deionized water at 50 °C after pretreatment. The gelatin yield was calculated and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) was performed to characterize molecular weight (MW) profile. Color, tensile strength (TS), elongation, and water barrier property were determined to characterize the fabricated catfish gelatin films. From the results of gelatin yield, color, SDS-PAGE, as well as mechanical and barrier properties of the film, the pretreatment method with 0.25 M NaOH and 0.09 M acetic acid, followed by extraction at 50 °C for 3 h, was determined as the optimum extraction method. The catfish gelatin exhibited higher MW fractions than commercial mammalian gelatin. The catfish gelatin extracts possessed film-forming properties determined by TS, elongation, and water vapor permeability (WVP) comparable to those of commercial mammalian gelatin. The selected formula for catfish gelatin film was determined as 1% gelatin and 20% glycerol, resulting in greatest TS and lowest WVP.     

桔子精油优化鱼鳞明胶膜性能的作用研究

为改善鱼鳞明胶膜的性能,测定添加明胶质量的0%、25%、50%、75%、100%桔子精油的可食膜的厚度、机械性能、水溶性、水蒸汽透过率、色泽、透明度和透光率、热性能、红外光谱和抑菌活性。结果表明:随着精油浓度的增加,鱼鳞明胶膜的厚度、断裂伸长率增加,拉伸强度、透光率、水溶性降低,水蒸汽透过率呈现先增加后降低的趋势;差示扫描量热法(DSC)和傅里叶变换红外光谱(FTIR)分析结果表明,鱼鳞明胶分子与桔子精油的部分成分发生相互作用,在一定程度上改善了明胶膜的热稳定性;桔子精油的添加还赋予了鱼鳞明胶膜抑菌作用。综合评价得出75%质量浓度的桔子精油添加量对鱼鳞明胶膜各项性能优化效果最好,本实验结果可为生产高性能的鱼鳞明胶膜提供理论基础。     

Mechanical and water vapor barrier properties of extruded and heat-pressed gelatin films

Gelatin-based edible films were produced by extruding hot melt of gelatin-based resins through a die with slot orifice and followed by heat-pressed method. The resins were plasticized with glycerol, sorbitol and the mixture of glycerol and sorbitol (MGS). The effect of type of plasticizer on extruded and heat-pressed (EHP) film-forming capacity was studied, and the mechanical and water barrier properties of resulting EHP gelatin films were compared with those of gelatin films prepared by solution casting method. Stretchable films were formed when glycerol or MGS were used as plasticizer, whereas resins plasticized with sorbitol were extruded in non-stretchable sheets. Glycerol plasticized gelatin film showed the highest flexibility and transparency among the EHP films tested. Tensile strength (TS), elongation (E) and water vapor permeability (WVP) of glycerol plasticized EHP gelatin films were 17.3 MPa, 215.9% and 2.46 ng m/m² s Pa, respectively, and EHP gelatin films had higher E values, lower TS values and higher WVP values compared to the glycerol plasticized cast gelatin films.     

Properties of Gelatin Film from Horse Mackerel (Trachurus japonicus) Scale

Optimal conditions for extracting gelatin and preparing gelatin film from horse mackerel scale, such as extraction temperature and time, as well as the protein concentration of film‐forming solutions were investigated. Yields of extracted gelatin at 70 °C, 80 °C, and 90 °C for 15 min to 3 h were 1.08% to 3.45%, depending on the extraction conditions. Among the various extraction times and temperatures, the film from gelatin extracted at 70 °C for 1 h showed the highest tensile strength and elongation at break. Horse mackerel scale gelatin film showed the greatly low water vapor permeability (WVP) compared with mammalian or fish gelatin films, maybe due to its containing a slightly higher level of hydrophobic amino acids (total 653 residues per 1000 residues) than that of mammalian, cold‐water fish and warm‐water fish gelatins. Gelatin films from different preparation conditions showed excellent UV barrier properties at wavelength of 200 nm, although the films were transparent at visible wavelength. As a consequence, it can be suggested that gelatin film from horse mackerel scale extracted at 70 °C for 1 h can be applied to food packaging material due to its lowest WVP value and excellent UV barrier properties.     

Effect of phenolic compounds on the properties of porcine plasma protein-based film

Properties of porcine plasma protein-based film incorporated with tannic acid, caffeic acid and ferulic acid at different concentrations (1–3% (w/w) of protein content) were studied. Film-forming solution (FFS) containing 3% protein (w/v) and 70% glycerol (w/w of protein content) was preheated at 70 °C for 30 min and adjusted pH to 10 followed by the addition of phenols and film casting. Tensile strength (TS) of resulting film increased by 123.3, 194.3 and 19.5% and elongation at break (EAB) increased by 71.1, 86.3 and 10.2%, respectively, compared with the control film, when tannic acid, caffeic acid and ferulic acid at a level of 3% was added. The use of all phenolic compounds slightly increased water vapor permeability (WVP) of resulting films (p < 0.05). The increases in a^∗- and b^∗-values of films were observed as the higher concentrations of tannic acid and caffeic acid were used. This was associated with the lowered transparency of resulting films. FFS containing 3% caffeic acid with prior oxygenation, especially with pH 10, yielded the film with increased TS but lowered EAB (p < 0.05). Oxygenation of FFS was associated with the lower L^∗-value and higher a^∗-value of resulting films. Therefore, phenolic compounds could be used as natural cross-linkers which affected the properties of porcine plasma protein-based film differently.     

Effect of surimi quality on properties of edible films based on Alaska pollack

Transparent and flexible edible/biodegradable films were successfully made from frozen Alaska pollack surimi. The effects of surimi quality on film formation, tensile strength (TS), elongation at break (EAB), water vapour permeability (WVP), light transmission, transparency, film solubility, protein solubility, and enzyme hydrolysis of surimi films were investigated. Thawed Alaska pollack surimi was incubated at 30 °C for 20 min (slight protein denaturation) and at 30 °C for 5 h (complete protein denaturation) in order to intentionally lower the surimi quality. Slight protein denaturation caused decreased EAB of the films and the complete denaturation gave rise to reduction of TS and EAB. The remaining of film properties were not markedly influenced by the loss of surimi quality. Hydrogen bonds, together with ionic bonds, played an important role in the formation of surimi films, but hydrophobic interactions were more involved when surimi with complete protein denaturation was used for the film preparation.     

Effect of plasticizer content on the functional properties of extruded gelatin-based composite films

Beef gelatin, in combination with varying levels of glycerol, was used to manufacture films by extrusion. A twin-screw co-rotating extruder was employed to produce the films and the mechanical and barrier properties of the films were investigated. Increasing the plasticizer content increased (P < 0.05) elongation at break (EAB) values but decreased (P < 0.05) tensile strength (TS) values. Oxygen permeability (OP) values for gelatin-based composite films increased (P < 0.05) as the concentration of glycerol increased. Additionally, the solubility of films in water and seal strength increased as glycerol content increased. FTIR results indicated that increasing glycerol concentration increased and displaced the peak situated around 1032 cm⁻¹, which corresponded to glycerol. Gelatin-based composite films with a concentration of 0.2% glycerol possessed the lowest water vapor permeability (WVP) and OP values. From the data generated in this study, it is clear that the use of a plasticizing agent in film formulations should be carefully considered because of the negative effects that the plasticizing agent could have on extruded film barrier properties.     

普鲁兰、甘油共混对结冷胶食用膜性能的影响

研究了普鲁兰、甘油共混对结冷胶食用性膜的机械性能、水蒸汽透过率、阻氧性和吸水率的影响。结果表明,普鲁兰的添加,提高了结冷胶食用膜的延展性、水蒸汽透过率和阻氧性,但降低了结冷胶食用膜的抗拉强度和吸水率;甘油增加了膜的延展性和水蒸汽透过率,但降低了膜的阻氧性。     

Effect of glycerol on the physicochemical properties of films based on legume protein concentrates: A comparative study

The overall goal of this research was to examine the mechanical, water vapor barrier properties and opacity of films prepared using legume protein concentrates (faba bean, pea, lupin, lentil, and soy) as a function of glycerol concentration (50, 75, or 100% [wt/wt]—relative to the protein weight). Overall, tensile strength (TS) decreased with increasing glycerol concentration, whereas tensile elongation (TE) and water vapor permeability (WVP) increased with increasing glycerol concentration. Film opacity was independent of glycerol concentration. The effect of protein‐type varied considerably depending on the functional property of the film being measured; TS was greatest with faba bean and lowest with lupin, whereas TE was highest for pea, and lowest for soy. Lentil protein films had considerably higher WVP, at the 100% glycerol concentration, as compared to the other protein concentrates. Findings from this study indicate that legume protein concentrates are capable of forming biodegradable, edible films. Overall, pea protein concentrate films showed the most promise for application in terms of strength, elongation, and moisture barrier properties.