The Effect of Basicity on the Radiative Heat Transfer and Interfacial Thermal Resistance in Continuous Casting

The basicity of mold flux has been recognized to have a significant influence on the mold flux crystallization in continuous casting, which would in turn affect the heat-transfer rate between the solidified shell and mold. The research regarding the mold flux crystallization as well as its effect on the heat transfer has been conducted intensively. However, few studies have been developed to specify the effect of basicity introduced mold flux crystallization on the radiative heat transfer and interfacial thermal resistance in continuous casting. By using an infrared radiation emitter, a radiative heat flux was applied to a copper mold covered with a solid mold flux disk to simulate the heat-transfer phenomena in continuous casting. The crystallization behaviors of mold fluxes with different basicities and their impact on the radiative heat transfer were investigated dynamically. The interfacial thermal resistance between the solid mold flux and copper mold was also studied in this article. The results suggested that the basicity tends to enhance the mold flux crystallization, leading to the reduction of radiative heat-transfer rate and enlargement of interfacial thermal resistance.     

连铸结晶器内渣膜形成及传热的研究现状

介绍了模拟结晶器内渣膜形成的实验方法, 综述了国内外学者在保护渣传热方面所做的研究工作, 包括固态渣膜的界面热阻、保护渣的导热系数、辐射传热以及渣膜的光学性质, 并提出了今后在渣膜形成及传热研究中有待进一步完善的内容和方向.现有的研究结果表明利用热丝法可以对渣膜的形成过程进行原位观察, 采用水冷铜探头法可以获取用于研究渣膜微观组织的固态渣膜样品.渣膜的界面热阻在0.0002~0.002 m2·K·W-1之间.在800℃以下, 保护渣的导热系数在1.0~2.0 W·m-1·K-1范围内, 且随温度的升高而逐渐增加.渣膜中的晶体一方面可以增加渣膜的界面热阻, 另一方面可以提高固态渣膜的反射率, 起到降低辐射热流的作用.此外, 过渡族金属氧化物的加入以及固态渣膜中弥散分布的微小颗粒也能改变渣膜的光学性质, 从而影响通过渣膜的辐射传热.      

Effect of Titania Absorption into a Mold Flux on the Heat Transfer Between the Mold and the Slab in the Continuous Casting of Titanium-Stabilized Stainless Steel

The heat transfer behavior between mold and slab changes when titania is absorbed into the mold flux during the continuous casting of titanium-stabilized stainless steel. The trend and the extent of this effect were investigated in the laboratory. Furthermore, to investigate the effect of titania on heat transfer, the effect of titania on the crystallization properties of the mold flux was studied. The results showed that with an increasing titania content of mold fluxes, the heat transfer coefficient and the heat flux of the slag film increases, whereas the heat transfer resistance decreases; the effect is that the growth and crystallization temperature of the cuspidine crystallites in the slag are suppressed by the absorption of titania.     

Improvement of Castability and Surface Quality of Continuously Cast TWIP Slabs by Molten Mold Flux Feeding Technology

An innovative continuous casting process named POCAST (POSCO’s advanced CASting Technology) was developed based on molten mold flux feeding technology to improve both the productivity and the surface quality of cast slabs. In this process, molten mold flux is fed into the casting mold to enhance the thermal insulation of the meniscus and, hence, the lubrication between the solidifying steel shell and the copper mold. Enhancement of both the castability and the surface quality of high-aluminum advanced high-strength steel (AHSS) slabs is one of the most important advantages when the new process has been applied into the commercial continuous casting process. A trial cast of TWIP steel has been carried out using a 10-ton scale pilot caster and 100-ton scale and 250-ton scale commercial casters. The amount of mold flux consumption was more than 0.2 kg/m² in the new process, which is much larger than that in the conventional powder casting. Trial TWIP castings at both the pilot and the plant caster showed stable mold performances such as mold heat transfer. Also, cast slabs showed periodic/sound oscillation marks and little defects. The successful casting of TWIP steel has been attributed to the following characteristics of POCAST: dilution of the reactant by increasing the slag pool depth, enlargement of channel for slag film infiltration at meniscus by elimination of the slag bear, and decrease of apparent viscosity of the mold slag at meniscus by increasing the slag temperature.     

Heat-Transfer Phenomena Across Mold Flux by Using the Inferred Emitter Technique

An investigation was carried out to study the heat-transfer phenomena across mold flux film by using infrared emitter technique (IET). With IET, it is possible to develop the mold fluxes with a liquid layer at the top and a solid layer in contact with copper mold with the degree of varying crystallization. The dynamic crystallization and melting process of the mold fluxes as well as their effects on the overall heat-transfer rate in the mold were successfully conducted. The single hot thermocouple technique (SHTT) was also employed in this investigation to study the melting and crystallization behaviors of mold fluxes for the interpretation of IET results. The results suggested that the interfacial thermal resistance between the solidified mold flux and copper mold would significantly influence the heat-transfer rate in continuous casting and the melting of the mold flux tends to enhance the overall heat-transfer rate. The technique established in this article by utilizing the IET can be well applied to the investigation of mold flux thermal properties, which in turn gives guidelines for the design of new mold flux for continuous casting.     

Mold behavior and its influence on quality in the continuous casting of steel slabs: Part II. Mold heat transfer,mold flux behavior,formation of oscillation marks,longitudinal off-corner depressions,and subsurface cracks

Axial heat-flux profiles have been determined quantitatively from temperature measurements conducted on a slab mold under routine operating conditions. As in earlier studies, the heat flux was observed to have a maximum value at the meniscus and to decline with increasing distance down the mold. The mold heat flux increased with increasing casting speed and was greater with a mold powder having lower viscosity and melting point being applied as lubricant. The heat extraction was largest while casting 0.29 pet carbon steel and least for a 0.09 pet carbon grade; reducing the depth of the submerged entry nozzle increased the heat flux slightly in the upper region of the mold. Most significant was the higher heat flux observed at the meniscus of the outside-radius face, attributable to the locally greater copper plate thickness compared to that of the opposite broad face. All of the measurements can be explained straightforwardly by heat flow in the vicinity of the meniscus and the resulting behavior of the so-called slag rim adjacent to the mold wall. It is postulated that the difference in copper plate thickness between the two broad faces at the meniscus causes the slag rim to be smaller on the outside-radius face which gives rise to shallower oscillation marks, as observed, higher heat transfer, and a slightly thicker solid shell. The dissimilar behavior has implications for quality because the inside-radius shell, experiencing reduced heat extraction, cools and shrinks less than the outside-radius shell. Thus, for a given end-plate taper, the narrow face of the slab adjacent to the inside radius can push against the end plate, accelerating copper wear, and, owing to squeezing of the broad face, cause an off-corner depression and subsurface crack toward the mold exit. If this is correct, maintenance of the same copper plate thickness at the meniscus is fundamental to preventing such an occurrence. Moreover, adjustment of the heat extraction at the meniscus should be achievable by changing copper plate thickness, mold coating thickness/conductivity, cooling water velocity, cooling channel configuration, and mold flux composition for a given steel grade. Formerly Graduate Student, Centre for Metallurgical Process Engineering, The University of British Columbia,     

Effects of MnO on Crystallization,Melting, and Heat Transfer of CaO-Al2O3-Based Mold Flux Used for High Al-TRIP Steel Casting

An investigation was carried out to study the effect of MnO on crystallization, melting, and heat transfer of lime-alumina-based mold flux used for high Al-TRIP steel casting, through applying the infrared emitter technique (IET) and the double hot thermocouple technique (DHTT). The results of IET tests showed that MnO could improve the general heat transfer rate through promoting the melting and inhibiting the crystallization of mold flux; meanwhile the radiative heat flux was being attenuated. DHTT experiments indicated that the crystallization fraction, melting temperature of mold flux decreased with the addition of MnO. The results of this study can further elucidate the properties of the CaO-Al₂O₃ slag system and reinforce the basis for the application of lime-alumina system mold fluxes for casting high Al steels.     

Heat Withdrawal in the Mold in Continuous Casting of Steel. Review and Analysis

Two principal methods are used to investigate the heat transfer in the continuous casting mold. The direct way is to measure cooling water temperatures, mold wall temperatures, strand temperatures and shell thickness in actual operation, and then deduce from these data the correlations for heat flux densities. The other way is to investigate the “unit operations” of heat transfer theoretically or experimentally in the laboratory, viz. heat transfer through a layer of casting flux or of gas, and heat transfer in a copper wall cooled on one side by water. The results obtained in this approach can then be used to explain the data determined with the direct method and to optimize the heat transfer behaviour of the mold in the machine. In the first part of this paper some unit operations are discussed and engineering formulae are given for computation of the heat resistances of the gap and the copper/water system. In the second part of the paper the available operational data on heat flux density are analysed. Algorithms are presented for computation of local and average heat flux density as functions of casting speed, carbon content of the steel and composition of the casting flux. Finally, values of shell thickness are computed with the correlation for heat flux density and are compared with the measured data.     

Measurement and modeling of heat transfer across interfacial mold flux layers

Surface quality problems in continuous cast steel are greatly affected by heat transfer across the interfacial layers in the gap between the solidifying steel shell and the mold. An experimental apparatus has been constructed to measure temperatures in the steel, mold flux layers, and copper under conditions approximating those in continuous casting. The flux solidified in multiple layers similar to those observed from continuous casting molds and contained many gas bubbles. Flux conductivities average about 1.0 W/m·K and appear to evolve with time. Contact resistances at both interfaces are significant and average about 0.0015 m²·K/W. Flux crystallization appears to be the only significant effect of flux composition. The one glassy flux tested had much greater thermal conductivities, presumably due to radiation transport. Temperature and gap thickness had a negligible effect on the properties. These properties depend on the model used to extract them. They are being implemented into a mathematical model to simulate heat transfer in the mold, interface, and solidifying shell of a continuous slab-casting machine.     

Mold Simulator Study of Heat Transfer Phenomenon During the Initial Solidification in Continuous Casting Mold

In this paper, mold simulator trials were firstly carried out to study the phenomena of the initial shell solidification of molten steel and the heat transfer across the initial shell to the infiltrated mold/shell slag film and mold. Second, a one-dimensional inverse heat transfer problem for solidification (1DITPS) was built to determine the temperature distribution and the heat transfer behavior through the solidifying shell from the measured shell thickness. Third, the mold wall temperature field was recovered by a 2DIHCP mathematical model from the measured in-mold wall temperatures. Finally, coupled with the measured slag film thickness and the calculations of 1DITPS and 2DIHCP, the thermal resistance and the thickness of liquid slag film in the vicinity of the meniscus were evaluated. The experiment results show that: the total mold/shell thermal resistance, the mold/slag interfacial thermal resistance, the liquid film thermal resistance, and the solid film thermal resistance is 8.0 to 14.9 × 10^?4, 2.7 to 4.8 × 10^?4, 1.5 to 4.6 × 10^?4, and 3.9 to 6.8 × 10^?4 m² K/W, respectively. The percentage of mold/slag interfacial thermal resistance, liquid film thermal resistance, and solid film thermal resistance over the total mold/shell thermal resistance is 27.5 to 34.4, 17.2 to 34.0, and 38.5 to 48.8 pct, respectively. The ratio of radiation heat flux is around 14.1 to 51.9 pct in the liquid slag film.     

The effect of in-situ dynamic mold flux melting and crystallization on heat transfer in continuous casting

A mold flux is widely used to modify heat transfer rates in continuous casting,and crystallization of the mold flux has been identified as a primary factor that influences heat flux from the strand to the mold.As the harsh environment and the very high transient nature of the mold caster,the study of dynamic mold flux melting and crystallization as well as their effects on heat transfer has not been conducted widely.By using an infrared radiation emitter,a high level heat flux was applied to a copper mold covered with solid mold flux disk to simulate the heat transfer phenomena in continuous casting.By this technique it is possible to have a liquid layer,a crystalline layer and a glassy layer in contact with one another and,by varying the energy input,it is possible to study the dynamic nature of the film and its effect on the heat transfer rate.A general heat transfer model was also developed to allow the prediction of the effect of varying the thickness of the three potential layers in the flux film.     

Characteristics of Heat Flux Through Slag Film of Mold slag Used for High Al-TRIP Steel Casting

 Due to its high content in the Al-TRIP steel, [Al] reacts with (SiO2) in the mold slag during the casting process, which results in the increase of w(Al2O3)/w(SiO2) ratio and the Al2O3 content, respectively, the characteristic of heat transfer through the slag film is then changed, which effects the smooth operation of the continuous casting process. In this paper, the mold slag simulator was used to study the change tendency of the heat flux density through slag film and the results were discussed, at the same time, the crystals in the 15# slag were characterized by BSE and XRD. The results obtained show that:(i) Heat flux density decreases with the increase of w(Al2O3)/w(SiO2) ratio; (ii) Heat flux density increases with the increase of Li2O and/or B2O3 content in the mold slag which contain 30% Al2O3; (iii) Compared with the heat flux density of common slag of peritectic steel, an appropriated mold slag contain 4% B2O3 and 4% Li2O is designed. The heat flux density is 0.645MW•m-2 when w(Al2O3)/w(SiO2)=1.46. (iv) In the equilibrium state, mold slag used for Al-TRIP steel precipitates CaF2 crystals.     

The Effect of the Transition Metal Oxide Content of a Mold Flux on the Radiation Heat Transfer Rates

Heat transfer in the mold of a steel continuous casting machine strongly influences cast surface quality. Transition metal oxides have been widely used in mold slags in continuous casting to aid in liquid pool formation and enhance melting rates. Although a few research studies have been carried out to investigate the thermal properties of mold slags containing transition metal oxides, very few studies have directly correlated their effect on radiation heat transfer rate in continuous casting. This study investigates the radiation heat transfer rates across a mold flux film and determines the influence of the transition metal oxides, MnO and Fe₂O₃, on these rates. It is found that additions of 10% MnO or 5% Fe₂O₃ reduce the radiation heat transfer rate by approximately 25% and increase the adsorption coefficient from 400 to 1800 m^?1.     

Multiphase Flow and Thermo-Mechanical Behaviors of Solidifying Shell in Continuous Casting Mold

 The metallurgical phenomena occurring in the continuous casting mold have a significant influence on the performance and the quality of steel product. The multiphase flow phenomena of molten steel, steel/slag interface and gas bubbles in the slab continuous casting mold were described by numerical simulation, and the effect of electromagnetic brake (EMBR) and argon gas blowing on the process were investigated. The relationship between wavy fluctuation height near meniscus and the level fluctuation index F, which reflects the situation of mold flux entrapment, was clarified. Moreover, based on a microsegregation model of solute elements in mushy zone with δ/γ transformation and a thermo-mechanical coupling finite element model of shell solidification, the thermal and mechanical behaviors of solidifying shell including the dynamic distribution laws of air gap and mold flux, temperature and stress of shell in slab continuous casting mold were described.     

Heat-Transfer Behavior of Mold Fluxes for Continuous Casting of Invar Alloy

The heat-transfer behavior across mold fluxes for Invar alloy Fe-36Ni would introduce significant influence on the slab surface quality. A study on the heat-transfer property of mold flux film for Invar alloy Fe-36Ni was carried out by an interaction between laboratory simulation and field trial. The study results indicate that great effect on heat transfer across flux film is caused by chemical compositions of mold fluxes. An increase of basicity and CaF₂ content suppresses heat transfer across flux film; heat transfer across flux film increases when the Al₂O₃ content increases from 4 pct to 8 pct but decreases when Al₂O₃ content is above 8 pct. The crystalline phases of both the conventional mold fluxes and the improved mold fluxes are all cuspidine phases. However, crystallization capability of the improved mold fluxes decreases as the result of the increase of basicity and CaF₂ content as well as the decrease of Al₂O₃ content. The average thickness of flux film taken from mold is about 1.6 mm, and the crystalline fraction is only 21.4 pct. All these promote heat transfer across the flux film. The field trial of the improved mold fluxes shows that the properties of liquid slag are steady during continuous casting; comprehensive heat transfer across flux film meets the needs of continuous casting of Fe-36Ni. Border solidification structures of solidified shell are refined remarkably, and hot cracking gets avoidance eventually.     

Analysis of the nonuniform slag film,mold friction,and the new cracking criterion for round billet continuous casting

A method predicting the thickness of solid and liquid slag films is presented to understand the complicated heat transfer from the strand to mold for round billet continuous casting. A mathematical model is also developed to calculate the liquid slag lubrication and solid slag friction on the basis of mechanics of viscous fluids and the contact state between the solidifying shell and mold. And a new criterion, based on the nonuniformity of mold heat transfer around the perimeter is proposed to predict the longitudinal crack. The results show that in the upper mold the distribution of the thickness of liquid slag film is similar with that of the solid one, and both of them are nonuniform around the mold perimeter, so does the mold friction. Increasing the casting speed could advance the time of crack formation for one casting process. By comparison, the sensitive area of the longitudinal crack predicted by the new criterion corresponds to that by a stress-based crack criterion. It may lay the theoretical foundation for the on-line detection of billet quality and the visualization of the continuous casting mold process.     

Infiltration of Slag Film into the Grooves on a Continuous Casting Mold

An analytical model is developed to clarify the slag film infiltration into grooves on a copper mold during the continuous casting of steel slabs. A grooved-type casting mold was applied to investigate the infiltration of slag film into the grooves of a pitch of 0.8 mm, width of 0.7 mm, and depth of 0.6 mm at the vicinity of a meniscus. The plant trial tests were carried out at a casting speed of 5.5 m min^?1. The slag film captured at a commercial thin slab casting plant showed that both the overall and the liquid film thickness were decreased exponentially as the distance from the meniscus increases. In contrast, the infiltration of slag film into the grooves had been increased with increasing distance from the meniscus. A theoretic model has been derived based on the measured profile of slag film thickness to calculate the infiltration of slag film into the grooves. It successfully reproduces the empirical observation that infiltration ratio increased sharply along casting direction, about 80 pct at 50 mm and 95 pct at 150 mm below the meniscus. In the model calculation, the infiltration of slag film increases with increasing groove width and/or surface tension of the slag. The effect of groove depth is negligible when the width to depth ratio of the groove is larger than unity. It is expected that the developed model for slag film infiltration in this study will be widely utilized to optimize the design of groove dimensions in continuous casting molds.     

提高亚包晶钢板坯拉速对结晶器传热的影响

通过对提高亚包晶钢AQ钢种230 mm×1200 mm板坯拉速试验过程中结晶器冷却水参数、铜板测温等数据进行适时记录,并与数学模型及ANSYS商业软件相结合,研究了提高拉速对结晶器平均热流、局部热流、铜板温度场以及坯壳厚度的影响。结果表明,拉速由1.3m/min提高到1.5m/min时,平均热流增加0.1 MW/m²左右,宽边弯月面区域局部热流增加0.13 MW/m²,但均在合理范围内,这与采用高碱度高结晶温度的试验保护渣有关;结晶器窄/宽面平均热流比超过0.9,应适当减少结晶器锥度;宽面坯壳厚度平均减薄4 mm左右,应严格控制结晶器传热强度,以保证连铸工艺稳定和铸坯质量。     

Experimental Determination of Heat Transfer Within the Metal/Mold Gap in a DC Casting Mold: Part II. Effect of Casting Metal, Mold Material, and Other Casting Parameters

Extensive experimental studies were conducted to quantify the effect of different parameters that can affect the heat transfer from the metal to the mold during the steady-state phase of DC casting. In the first part previously published, the experimental technique was established and results were reported for the effect of gas type (atmosphere within the mold) and the gap between the metal and the mold. The results showed the significant effect of gas thermal conductivity and the metal-mold gap on the mold wall heat transfer coefficient. In this second publication on heat transfer in the mold wall region of a DC casting mold, the results from the effect of casting temperature, gas flow rate, casting alloy, mold material, and the mold insert material on the mold wall heat transfer coefficient are described. The experiments reported in the current paper show that these additional factors tested do not affect the heat flux through the mold wall to the same extent as the gap size or the gas type. The heat transfer coefficient changes by less than 5 pct when casting temperature is changed by ±25 K, less than 15 pct when the gas flow rate within the metal-mold gap flows at up to 3 LPM, and approximately 30 pct when the mold material is changed from stainless steel to AA601 to copper. Similar results were obtained when different insert materials were used. These results are explained with the help of an electrical analogy of heat transfer and are consistent with the heat transfer theory.     

Heat Flux Through Slag Film and Its Crystallization Behavior

An experimental apparatus for simulating copper mold is used to quantify the heat flux through the slag film and to obtain a solid slag for further determining its crystallization behavior. The result indicates that both the chemical composition of the mold powder and the cooling rate have an important influence on the heat flux through the slag film. With increasing the binary basicity, the heat flux of slag film decreases at first, reaches the minimum at the basicity of 1.4, and then increases, indicating that the maximum binary basicity is about 1.4 for selecting ＂mild cooling＂ mold powder. The heat transfer through the slag film can be specified in terms of the crystalline ratio and the thickness of the slag film. Recrystallization of the solid slag occurs and must be considered as an important factor that may influence the heat transfer through the solid slag layer.