The effect of interference-fit fasteners on the fatigue life of central hole specimens

Fatigue tests were carried out on 2024‐T351, thickness 1.6 mm, central hole specimens containing pins installed with five different interference‐fit levels. Tests clearly demonstrated the beneficial effect of interference fit on fatigue resistance, up to the maximum value examined, 2.5%. A three‐dimensional (3D) finite‐element model was used in order to characterize the stress field around the hole. A large specimen, with a 40‐mm‐diameter hole filled with interference‐fit pin, was instrumented by strain gauges and statically tested in order to check FEM results. A very good correlation existed between measured and numerically evaluated strains. FEM results demonstrated the well‐known effect of interference‐fit fasteners on reducing stress ranges. By increasing the interference level, the stress range was practically unchanged, while the mean stress decreased. Interference‐fit produces a biaxial stress state, which must be taken into account for fatigue evaluation. In the present case, a simple criterion, based on hoop strain, predicted the fatigue results quite well with the exception of open hole fatigue test results, which were overestimated.     

Finite element method and experimental investigation on the residual stress fields and fatigue performance of cold expansion hole

Cold expansion is an efficient way to improve the fatigue life of an open hole. The residual stress fields of cold expansion holes are vital for key components designing, manufacturing and fatigue properties assessment. In this paper, three finite element models have been established to study the residual stress fields of cold expansion hole, experiments were carried out to measure the residual stress of cold expansion hole and verify simulation results. Three groups of specimens with different cold expansion levels are examined by fatigue test. The fracture surfaces of specimens are observed by scanning electron microscope. The finite element method (FEM) results show, with interference values develop, the maximum values of circumferential residual compressive/tensile stresses increase in “infinite” and “finite” domain, and a higher positive stress values are obtained at the boundary of “finite” domain. The effects of the friction between the mandrel and the hole’s surface and two cold expansion techniques on the distribution of residual stress is local, which only affects the radial residual stress around the maximum value and the circumferential residual stress near the hole’s edge. Crack always initiates near entrance face and the crack propagation speed along transverse direction is faster than that along axial direction.     

Retardation of cracks emanating from fastener holes

A limited number of cold expansion and interference fit fastener systems were evaluated to determine their capability to retard the growth of cracks emanating from fastener holes. The fastener systems were applied to specimens fabricated from 7075-T6 aluminum. In all cases the fastener holes had fatigue cracks emanating from them before the fastener system was applied. Some samples that were used as baseline were fitted with non-interference fit fasteners. All samples were tested in constant amplitude fatigue at an R ratio of 0.5 at maximum stresses of 20 or 30 ksi. The results show that a cold expansion or properly installed interference fit fastener system significantly retards the growth of preexisting cracks emanating from fastener holes irrespective of the amount of load transfer through the joint.     

Finite element and experimental study on multiaxial fatigue analysis of rail clip failures

The rail clip fastening system is an important structural component of railway track systems providing flexibility and turnover resistance for running rails. High replacement frequency of fasteners was observed compared with other components because of fatigue failures of rail clips. In this study, implicit and explicit finite element (FE) models were developed for E‐clip and Fast‐clip with material and fatigue properties obtained from experimental testing. The fatigue loading experiments were conducted to determine the strain‐life relationship. The assessments of the fatigue damage and fatigue life were analysed using the FE results for the rail clip strain/stress components with the Fatemi‐Socie multiaxial fatigue criterion. A time‐efficient smallest enclosing circle algorithm was developed to search the critical plane orientation and the maximum shear strain amplitude for fatigue analysis. This work provides a method for FE and experimental study of multiaxial fatigue analysis of rail clip failures subjected to dynamic loading.     

Numerical simulation of residual stress relaxation around a cold‐expanded fastener hole under longitudinal cyclic loading using different kinematic hardening models

Cold expansion of fastener holes creates compressive residual stresses around the hole. This well‐known technique improves fatigue life by reducing tensile stress around the holes. However, cyclic loading causes these compressive residual stresses to relax, thus reducing their beneficial effect. Estimation of the fatigue life without considering the residual stress relaxation might lead to inaccurate results. In this research, numerical studies were carried out using 2D finite element (FE) models to determine the initial tangential and radial residual stress distributions generated by cold expansion and their relaxation under cyclic loading. To predict the stress relaxation, four nonlinear kinematic hardening models were applied in simulation of stress/strain path. The results obtained from the FE analysis were compared with available experimental results. A good agreement between the numerical and experimental results was observed.     

Experimental and numerical investigations on fatigue behavior of aluminum alloy 7050-T7451 single lap four-bolted joints

The fatigue behavior of aluminum alloy 7050-T7451 single lap four-bolted joints was studied by high-frequency fatigue test and finite element (FE) methods. The fatigue test results showed that a better enhancement of fatigue life was achieved for the joints with high-locked bolts by employing the combinations of cold expansion, interference fit, and clamping force. The fractography revealed that fatigue cracks propagated tortuously; more fatigue micro-cliffs, tearing ridges, lamellar structure were observed, and fatigue striation spacing was simultaneously reduced. The evaluation of residual stress conducted by FE methods confirmed the experimental results and locations of fatigue crack initiation. The extension of fatigue lives can be attributed to the evolution of fatigue damage and effect of beneficial compressive residual stresses around the hole, resulting in the delay of crack initiation, crack deflection, and plasticity-induced crack closure.     

Stepped‐isothermal fatigue analysis of engine piston

Stepped‐isothermal fatigue failure is the main failure mechanism of modern engine pistons under bench reliability test condition. This paper presents a methodology for stepped‐isothermal fatigue analysis of engine pistons, which consists of a fatigue criterion, evaluation of temperature and stress distribution by finite element analysis and the final life prediction. The major character of the methodology is the fatigue definition of engine pistons with respect to engine load change cycle and a damage‐based fatigue criterion accounting for the nonlinear creep–fatigue damage. Taking as an example, the fatigue life of an engine piston was predicted by the proposed analysis procedures. The analysis results showed that the most critical area was located in the throat edge. Moreover, the proposed methodology can give a relatively accurate and reasonable life prediction for an engine piston under the loading condition of bench reliability test, with a benefit of decreasing the needed component's reliability tests and design time.     

Investigation of cold expansion of short edge margin holes with pre‐existing cracks in 2024‐T351 aluminium alloy

The United States Air Force has requirements to inspect and cold expand potentially thousands of fastener holes for an aircraft fleet, and the presence of existing cracks at those fastener holes is expected. Fatigue experiments were performed to investigate the resulting fatigue crack growth life of a fastener hole that contained a representative ‘unknown’ crack at the time of inspection (approximately 0.050 in. in length) at a short edge margin hole that was then cold expanded and compare that to a non‐cold expanded hole and a cold expanded hole with no pre‐existing cracks. The United States Air Force analytical approach used to account for the benefit due to cold expansion was compared to the experimental data and does not consistently provide conservative predictions.     

Effect of cold expansion on the fatigue life of Al 2024-T3 in double shear lap joints: Experimental and numerical investigations

In this paper the effect of cold expansion on fatigue life improvement of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 plates used in double shear lap joints is investigated experimentally by conducting fatigue tests and numerically by implementing finite element simulations. In the experimental part, fatigue tests were carried out on the plates with cold expansion levels of 0%, 1.5% and 4.7% which were used in double shear lap joints. In the numerical study, three-dimensional finite element models were employed to predict stress distributions in the cold expanded plates used in the double shear lap joint. The results obtained from finite element simulation, have been employed to explain the trends which were observed in the experimentally attained S–N data and the fatigue crack initiation location. The experimental and numerical results showed that cold expansion improves fatigue life at low load levels and the life enhancement is more for the bigger cold expansion size. However, the fatigue life improvement is smaller in double shear lap joints compared to a single cold expanded plate.     

Integration of multi‐step stamping effects in the bending fatigue analysis of a steel wheel

Bending fatigue prediction accuracy of steel wheel can hardly be guaranteed without clearly understanding the influence of stamping process on fatigue. In this research, multi‐step stamping processes of spoke were analysed by different finite element simulation techniques. Major influences of stamping process on fatigue property were distinguished. Data‐mapping technique was used to transfer information between stamping and fatigue analysis models. Difference material experiments were carried out to research the influence of prestrain on material properties. Modified E‐N function was established according to the theoretical analysis and material experiment results. Bending fatigue finite element simulation was carried out, and result matched experiment well both in position and cycle life.     

Fatigue crack growth and life prediction of a single interference fitted holed plate

To understand the different aspects of fatigue behaviour of complex structural joints it will be much helpful if the effects of different parameters are studied separately. In this article, to study the isolated effect of interference fit on fatigue life a pined hole specimen is investigated. This specimen is a single‐holed plate with an oversized pin which force fitted to the hole. The investigation was carried out both experimentally and numerically. In the experimental part, interference fitted specimens along with open hole specimens were fatigue tested to study the experimental effect of the interference fit. In the numerical part, three‐dimensional finite element (FE) simulations have been performed in order to obtain the created stresses due to interference fit and subsequent applied longitudinal load at the holed plate. The stress distribution obtained from FE simulation around the hole was used to predict crack initiation life using Smith–Watson–Topper method and fatigue crack growth life using the NASGRO equation with applying the AFGROW computer code. The predicted fatigue life obtained from the numerical methods show a good agreement with the experimental fatigue life.     

Strain ratcheting and stress relaxation around interference‐fitted single‐holed plates under cyclic loading: experimental and numerical investigations

Longitudinal strain ratcheting and stress relaxation in interference‐fitted single‐holed plates were investigated both experimentally and numerically. In the experimental part single‐holed plates made from Al‐alloy 7075‐T6 were force‐fitted with oversized pins to create 1% and 2% nominal interference fit sizes. Then these plates (specimens) were instrumented with dynamic strain gauges in longitudinal direction around the hole to measure the strain during interference fit and strain ratcheting during subsequent cyclic loading. In the numerical part, 2D finite element code has been written to simulate the interference fit process and subsequent cyclic loading to obtain strains and stresses around the force fitted hole. To predict the strain ratcheting, Ohno–Wang kinematic hardening model was applied for simulation of stress/strain path. The strain ratcheting predicted from the finite element code and experimental test results were compared. The results showed that there is a good agreement between the measured and numerically evaluated strains, and the strain ratcheting is bigger for higher cyclic load level, but it is smaller for larger interference size.     

Experimental and numerical investigations about the combined effect of interference fit and bolt clamping on the fatigue behavior of Al 2024-T3 double shear lap joints

In this paper the fatigue behavior of double shear lap joints treated by different combinations of interference fit and bolt clamping have been investigated both experimentally and numerically. To do so, specimens made from aerospace structural material of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 plates were interference fitted at the sizes of 1.5% and 4.7% and torque tightened with 2 and 4 N m to be prepared for fatigue tests. Consequently, the joints were subjected to cyclic load at different levels to obtain fatigue life. Finite element (FE) analysis was also performed to find the stress and strain distributions and the results were used to help explain the trends observed in the experimentally obtained S–N data. The experimental tests showed that during the interference fit process a protruded region is created at around the hole in the exit plane due to directional material plastic flow as a consequence of the oversized bolt force fitting. This protruded region has a bigger height for the bigger interference fit size. The finite element results showed that the protruded region generally localizes the compressive effect of bolt clamping and reduces its capability in fatigue life enhancement, by relaxing the clamping force. The fatigue test results showed that a better fatigue life improvement was achieved by employing the combination of a smaller interference fit size and bigger clamping force.     

Probabilistic fatigue crack growth analysis of spot‐welded joints

This paper presents a probabilistic fatigue crack growth life prediction methodology for spot‐welded joints under variable amplitude loading history. The loading is multi‐axial and is obtained from transient response analysis of a vehicle model using finite‐element analysis. A three‐dimensional (3D) finite element model of a simplified joint with four spot welds is developed, and the static stress analysis of this joint is performed. Then the fatigue crack inside the base material sheet is modelled as a surface crack. Probabilistic crack growth model is combined with the stress analysis result to develop a probabilistic fatigue crack growth life prediction methodology for spot welds. This new method is implemented with MSC/NASTRAN and MSC/FATIGUE and is useful for the reliability assessment of spot‐welded joints against fatigue crack growth.     

T300/QY8911 π/4层压板机械连接干涉疲劳

本文对T300/QY8911π/4层压板机械连接干涉配合进行了静拉伸挤压和拉-拉疲劳试验。与滑配合比较,干涉使静挤压强度略有提高,但能使疲劳寿命增加数倍。文中用有限元方法计算了两种配合的孔边应力分布。并对疲劳损伤用X射线作了检测,初步分析了干涉配合的增寿原因。      

Low cycle fatigue life prediction in shot‐peened components of different geometries – part II: life prediction

This study investigates the effects of shot peening on the low‐cycle fatigue performance of a low‐pressure steam turbine blade material. The finite element model incorporating shot‐peening effects, which has been introduced in part I, has been used to predict the stabilised stress/strain state in shot‐peened samples during fatigue loading. The application of this model has been extended to different notched geometries in this study. Based on the modelling results, both the Smith–Watson–Topper and Fatemi–Socie critical plane fatigue criteria have been used to predict the fatigue life of shot‐peened samples (treated with two different peening intensities) with varying notched geometries. A good agreement between experiments and predictions was obtained. The application of a critical distance method considering the stress and strain hardening gradients near the shot‐peened surface has been found to improve the life prediction results. The effects of surface defects on the accuracy of life predictions using the proposed method were also discussed.     

Numerical and experimental investigation of the cold expansion process with split sleeve in titanium alloy TC4

A series of uniaxial fatigue tests were carried out using specimens containing non-cold expanded and cold expanded holes to assess the effect of split sleeve cold expansion on fatigue behavior of titanium alloy TC4. The fracture surfaces of specimens were observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM). 3D finite element models were also used to analyze the residual stress fields around cold expanded holes. Based on the qualitative finite element analysis (FEA), the multi-axial fatigue lives of the non-cold and cold expanded holes have been predicted by Smith–Watson–Topper (SWT) method and Wang–Brown (WB) method respectively. The effects of the friction between the split sleeve and the hole’s surface were also considered. The results reveal that crack of cold expanded specimen always initiates near entrance face and the crack propagation speed along transverse direction is faster than along axial direction. The lowest compressive stress occurs at the entrance face where crack is preferentially initiated. The mandrel entrance face is the most sensitive region to friction between the split sleeve outer surface and the hole. After cold expansion, fatigue life of TC4 open hole was increased to 1.7–2.2 times. Compared with the result of SWT theory, the result of WB theory is more conservative and reliable.     

Investigation on low cycle fatigue of nickel‐based single crystal turbine blade in different regions

Low cycle fatigue experiments of nickel‐based single crystal superalloy miniature specimens were carried out at 760 °C/1000 MPa and 980 °C/750 MPa. According to testing results, low cycle fatigue life is dependent on sampling position of turbine blade under same test conditions. Fracture surface morphology and longitudinal profile microstructure indicated that the fracture mechanism transformed from cleavage fracture to ductile fracture with the changing of medium temperature to high temperature due to the particle cutting at yield stress intensity. The scanning electron microscopy observation of original material demonstrated that the smaller precipitate size of samples have a shorter fatigue life. Meanwhile, the constitutive model considering size effect was built based on the crystal plastic theory. The finite element analysis demonstrated that the smaller precipitate size could dramatically reduce the plastic deformation suffering the same cycle loading.     

Effects of Shot‐Peening on Fretting Fatigue Crack Growth Behavior in Ti‐6Al‐4V

Abstract: The effects of shot‐peening on fretting fatigue crack growth behaviour in titanium alloy, Ti‐6A1‐4V were investigated. Three shot‐peening intensities: 4A, 7A and 10A were considered. The analysis involved the fracture mechanics and finite element sub‐modelling technique to estimate crack propagation lives. These computations were supplemented with the experimentally measured total fretting fatigue lives of laboratory specimens to assess the crack initiation lives. Shot‐peening has significant effect on the initiation/propagation phases of fretting fatigue cracks; however this effect depends upon the shot‐peening intensity. The ratio of crack initiation and total life increased while the ratio of the crack propagation and total life decreased with an increase of shot‐peening intensity. Effects of residual compressive stress from shot‐peening on the crack growth behaviour were also investigated. The fretting fatigue crack propagation component of the total life with relaxation increased in comparison to its counterpart without relaxation in each shot‐peened intensity case while the initiation component decreased. Improvement in the fretting fatigue life from the shot‐peening and also with an increase in the shot‐peening intensity appears to be not always due to increase in the crack initiation resistance from shot‐peened induced residual compressive stress.     

Finite element investigations of bolt clamping force and friction coefficient effect on the fatigue behavior of aluminum alloy 2024-T3 in double shear lap joint

In this paper, the effect of bolt clamping force on the fatigue life of bolted double shear lap joints was investigated numerically. To do so, finite element simulation results were used to illustrate the trends occurred in experimental fatigue tests showing the effect of bolt clamping on improving the fatigue life of double shear lap joints. The results show that clamping force decreases the resultant longitudinal stress at the hole edge thus the fatigue life increases compared to clearance fit specimens. In general, at higher tightening torque longer fatigue lives were achieved, however, below a certain load level the life improvement was discontinued because of fretting occurrence. Also lubricating the specimens reduces the advantages of the clamping force.