Development of a low-noise analog front-end ASIC for CdTe detectors

This paper describes the recent development of a low-noise analog front-end ASIC for CdTe detectors. The ASIC is designed on the basis of the Open-IP LSI project led by JAXA and implemented using TSMC 0.35-μm CMOS technology. The ASIC contains eight identical channels, each of which includes a charge-sensitive amplifier, band-pass filters, and a sample-and-hold circuit. Preliminary testing of the ASIC achieved noise performance of 188e^-+7.5e^-/pF. In order to verify the low-noise characteristics, the ASIC was connected to a guard-ring-equipped CdTe diode detector with dimensions of and having a thickness of 0.5 mm. As a result, the gamma-ray spectra of radioactive sources were obtained with good energy resolutions of 2.51 and 2.35 keV (FWHM) for gamma rays of 59.5 and 122 keV, respectively, at room temperature.     

Characterization of polarization phenomenon in Al-Schottky CdTe detectors using a spectroscopic analysis method

CdTe radiation detectors equipped with Schottky contacts are known to show spectral response degradation over time under biasing. Nevertheless, they can be used as high-resolution spectrometers for X-rays and gamma-rays with moderate cooling and high voltage. Spectroscopic long-term measurements have been performed with Al/CdTe/Pt pixel detectors of 0.5, 1 and 2 mm thicknesses and ²⁴¹Am source from −13 to +16 °C to evaluate how long they can be operated. Experimental results are confronted to simulations using the charge accumulation model for electric field. Activation energy for collection efficiency stability and peak shift was measured at 1.0-1.2 eV although deep acceptor levels responsible for hole detrapping during polarization were evaluated by other methods at E_V +0.6-0.8 eV. The difference is probably due to a thermal effect of pre-polarization before biasing the detector.     

CdZnTe晶片表面钝化研究

用NH4F／H2O2对Br2-MeOH抛光CdZnTe晶片表面进行了表面钝化处理,通过I-V测试及XPS分析分别对钝化前后的CZT晶片的电学性能和表面组成进行了表征。I-V测试结果表明NH4F／H2O2对CdZnTe晶片表面有较好的钝化效果,电流下降率随所加偏压的增加而下降。在10V偏压下,电流下降最明显,下降率为73．7％。与欧姆定律发生偏离的临界场强为333V／cm。XPS分析发现,用NH4F／H2O2处理可使CdZnTe表面富集的Te79.28％被氧化成TeO2,氧化层的厚度约为3．15nm。钝化后的表面更接近CdZnTe的化学计量配比。     

荧光CdTe量子点和CdTe／SiO2纳米粒子的制备与表征

采用巯基乙酸为稳定剂，在水相中直接合成了不同荧光发射波长的CdTe量子点（QDs），在此基础上，采用反相微乳法对所获得的QDs进行硅烷化处理，得到大小均一、水溶性好的CdTe／SiO2纳米粒子，为该材料的进一步生物应用奠定了良好的基础。     

Preparation and characterization of polycrystalline CdZnTe films for large-area, high-sensitivity X-ray detectors

This article reviews the preparation and characterization of polycrystalline CdTe and CdZnTe films to be used in large-area, high-sensitivity X-ray panel detectors intended for medical diagnostics. The films, deposited by closed-spaced sublimation, are expected to exhibit excellent efficiency at low X-ray doses because of their high sensitivity. The detectors constructed using these films incorporated a novel hybrid technique, in which zinc-doped CdTe was pre-deposited onto a ceramic substrate and then connected to a TFT circuit substrate. The sensor substrate material was specially selected to avoid both incident X-ray attenuation in the substrate and micro-cracks in the film. Zinc doping, which was used to grow the CdTe film, also served to form the heterojunction diode structure that suppressed leakage current. Moreover, the quality of a polycrystalline CdZnTe film deposited on a 9×9 substrate was characterized, revealing its applicability to large-area X-ray detectors. Further investigation and improvements are in progress.     

Development of an energy-binned photon-counting detector for X-ray and gamma-ray imaging

The aim of this study is to develop an energy-binned photon-counting (EBPC) detector that enables us to provide energy information of x-rays with a reasonable count statistics. We used Al-pixel/CdTe/Pt semiconductor detectors, which had an active area of 8 mm×144 mm and consisted of 18 modules aligned linearly. The size of a CdTe detector module was 8 mm×8 mm and the thickness of the CdTe crystal was 1 mm. Each module consisted of 40×40 pixels and the pixel size was 200 μm×200 μm. We applied the bias voltage of −500 V to the Pt common electrode. The detector counted the number of x-ray photons with four different energy windows, and output four energy-binned images with pixel depths of 12, 12, 11 and 10 bits at a frame rate of 1200 Hz (300 Hz×4 energy bins). The basic performance of the detector was evaluated in several experiments. The results showed that the detector realized the photon counting rate of 0.4×10⁶ counts/sec/pixel (10⁷ counts/sec/mm²), energy resolution 4.4% FWHM at 122 keV. The integral uniformity of the detector was about 1% and the differential uniformity was about 1%. In addition, the image quality was examined with a resolution chart and step-wedge phantoms made of aluminum and polymethyl methacrylate. And we compared the quality of an acquired image with that acquired with an energy integration detector. The results of these experiments showed that the developed detector had desirable intrinsic characteristics for x-ray photon counting imaging.     

真空热蒸发碲化镉薄膜的结构组成和光电性能研究

研究了真空热蒸发制备CdTe薄膜的光电性能以及微结构、化学组成和成膜机理。通过X射线衍射、透射电镜电子衍射、X光电子能谱和光、暗电导测试等分析手段,系统表述了薄膜的组成、结构、表面氧化与真空热蒸发工艺的关系。指出基板温度是决定CdTe薄膜组成和结构的关键参数,150℃左右制备的CdTe薄膜具有最佳光电性能和成膜质量。另外,对CdTe薄膜的氧化机制和成膜机理也进行了初步探讨。     

使用单能X射线辐射装置对CdTe探测效率的实验刻度

CdTe探测器对单能平行光子源的绝对测量之前,需要进行效率刻度。利用MCNP5蒙特卡罗模拟程序建立CdTe探测器物理模型,模拟计算了10~260keV能量段能点的本征探测效率,在10~60keV能量段探测效率高于75%。用单能X射线装置和HPGe探测器对CdTe探测器本征探测效率进行了实验刻度。结果表明,在10~100keV能量范围内CdTe探测器的模拟效率与实验效率趋势一致,最大误差不超过5.6%。因为Te元素在27keV和32keV处会产生逃逸峰,导致探测效率在这2个能量处有明显下降趋势。用241Am和133Ba放射源对CdTe探测器进行效率刻度验证,在能量为59.54keV和81keV放射源标定的探测效率与单能X射线辐射装置测量值相符。     

壳聚糖包裹CdTe的物理表征及生物毒性研究

选用天然多糖中唯一的碱性多糖-壳聚糖作为稳定剂和包裹剂,成功地在水相中以温和条件合成了粒径小小于10nm的壳聚糖包裹cdTe纳米粒子（CdTe／CS）和壳聚糖微球包裹的CdTe纳米粒子（CdTel／CSMs）,对两种纳米粒子物理表征显示,二者均具有较好的光学性质稳定、发射峰峰位分布范围宽、紫外吸收光谱宽且连续的特点。相比ECdTe的毒性,CdTe／CS和cdTe,CsMs纳米粒子的细胞毒性有明显降低,且生物相容性强,可以应用在生物医学检验、细胞成像,甚至活体研究中。     

Analysis of the combined effect of mass transfer and decomposition kinetics on the growth rates of CdTe by Mocvd

Abstract

A model containing the effects of multicomponent diffusion, thermal diffusion and decomposition kinetics of diethyl telluride has been established to simulate the experimental growth rates of the CdTe epilayer by MOCVD. Calculated results clearly show that the growth process changes from a kinetics‐controlled regime at low temperatures to a mass transfer‐controlled regime at intermediate temperatures and finally to a thermodynamics‐controlled regime at high temperatures. Reasonable fitting was obtained between calculations and experimental data.     

The use of aluminium doped ZnO as transparent conductive oxide for CdS/CdTe solar cells

CdTe/CdS and CdTe/ZnO thin film solar cells were grown with a high vacuum evaporation based low temperature process (≤ 420 °C). Aluminium doped zinc oxide (AZO) was used as transparent conducting oxide (TCO) material. AZO exhibited excellent stability during the solar cell processing, and no significant change in electrical conductivity or transparency was observed. The current density loss due to absorption in the 1 μm thick AZO layer with 5 Ω per square sheet resistance was found to be 1.2 mA/cm². We investigated the influence of an intrinsic ZnO layer (i:ZnO) in combination with various CdS thicknesses. The i:ZnO layer was found to significantly increase the open circuit voltage of the solar cells with very thin CdS layer. Increasing thickness of the i:ZnO layer leads to UV absorption losses, narrowing of the depletion layer width and hence reduced collection efficiency in the long wavelength (685-830 nm) part. With AZO/i:ZnO bi-layer TCO we could achieve cell efficiencies of 15.6% on glass and 12.4% on the flexible polyimide film.     

CdZnTe核辐射探测器表面物理和化学钝化研究

表面漏电流引起的噪声会限制CAznTe(CZT)探测器的性能。尤其对于共面栅探测器,漏电噪声的大小与器件的电极设计和表面处理工艺密切相关。本文比较了探测器表面的物理和化学钝化工艺：采用H2O2溶液和KOH—KCl溶液对CZT样品进行湿化学钝化处理,采用RFPCVD法在CZT样品表面沉积类金刚石薄膜(DLC)进行物理干法钝化。借助俄歇电子能谱(AES)和显微拉曼光谱以及ZC36微电流测试仪等手段研究了CZT表面组成与器件电学性能之间的关系。AES结果表明KOH—KCl溶液钝化可以改善CZT样品表面的化学组分比,H2O2溶液钝化可以将表面富Te层转化为高阻氧化层,钝化前后的I-V特性曲线表明两种化学钝化方法均可以有效地减小器件表面漏电流,达到满意的钝化效果。CZT样品表面物理钝化通过在样品表面沉积DLC薄膜加以实现,显微拉曼光谱表明CZT表面钝化层是高sp^3含量的DLC薄膜,AES深度剖析表明DLC薄膜可以有效阻止CZT内部元素的外扩散,并且DLC薄膜内部C元素向CZT内部的扩散也是比较低的。DLC薄膜钝化后的CZT共面栅探测器表面栅距25μm的栅间电阻可以达到12GΩ,有效地降低了器件的表面漏电流。     

CdTe/CdMnTe多量子阱的生长和激子复合动力学性质的研究

用分子束外延在GaAs衬底上生长了CdTe/Cd0.8Mn0.2Te多量子 结构,利用X射线衍射（XRD）、低激发密度下的PL光谱和变密度激发的ps时间分辨光谱研究了CdTe/CdMnTe多量子阱的结构和激子复合特性。在变密度激发的ps时间分辨光谱中,发现不同激发密度下发光衰减时间不同,认为它的机理可能是无辐射复合引起的。     

CdTe多晶薄膜制备及后处理对CdS/CdTe界面的影响

采用近空间升华法分别在玻璃、CdS及CdS1-xTex衬底上沉积了CdTe多晶薄膜,通过原子力显微镜的观察和X射线衍射的分析,比较了它们的微结构。结果表明,用CdS和CdS1-xTex多晶薄膜作为衬底沉积的CdTe多晶薄膜结构与衬底相似,具有(111)面择优取向。通过对在不同氧分压下进行后处理的CdS/CdTe薄膜的断面及光能隙的研究,发现在氮氧(4∶1)气氛下后处理的薄膜CdS层明显减薄,这样的结果有利于改善CdTe太阳电池的光谱响应,增加载流子收集。我们认为氧在退火中促进了CdS/CdTe界面互扩散,扩散的结果不仅弥补了CdS、CdTe间的晶格失配,而且降低了界面的位错密度,并获得了面积为0.52 cm2,转换效率为13.38%的CdTe多晶薄膜电池。     

Photoluminescence studies of CdTe films and junctions

Device quality CdTe films and junctions have been studied using low-temperature photoluminescence (PL) measurements. The behavior of the PL was studied as a function of the measurement temperature and excitation intensity. The CdTe films and junctions were prepared under various deposition conditions to determine the effect of film deposition and solar cell fabrication parameters, such as the effect of oxygen, and chloride treatment. A PL band located at 1.232 eV has been attributed to the presence of oxygen. This band is present only in as-deposited samples excited at the CdTe surface. Samples annealed in the presence of CdCl₂ exhibit a single PL band located at 1.42 eV. A model explaining the behavior of these bands is presented.     

Current simulation of symmetric contacts on CdTe

This article presents the calculated current-voltage characteristics of symmetric Metal-Semiconductor-Metal configurations for Schottky, Ohmic, and injecting-Ohmic contacts on high resistivity CdTe. The results clearly demonstrate that in the wide band-gap, semi-insulating semiconductors, such as high resistivity CdTe, the linearity of the I-V curves cannot be considered a proof of the ohmicity of the contacts. It is shown that the linear I-V curves are expected for a wide range of contact barriers. Furthermore, the slope of these linear curves is governed by the barrier height, rather than the bulk doping concentration. Therefore the deduction of bulk's resistivity from the I-V curves may be false.     

Photoconductive and polarization properties of individual CdTe nanowires

Metal-Cd_0.42Te_0.58-metal nanowires were electrodeposited into the pores of anodized aluminum oxide (AAO) membranes, and the polarization sensitive photoconductance was analyzed for individual nanostructures. Non-linear I-V curves were observed, and the short-circuit current density, open-circuit voltage, and fill factor were determined. These nanowires exhibited a power conversion efficiency of 0.56%, which is higher than some comparable nanomaterials of greater complexity.     

含量子点纳米青蒿琥酯胶囊的制备与性能研究

通过在纳米青蒿琥酯胶囊内包埋有荧光特性的量子点,探索纳米药物药理研究可视化的方法;通过初生态微晶法制备了具有可检测荧光特性的纳米胶囊,探讨影响纳米胶囊形成和量子点荧光稳定性的主要因素。     

Kinetics of native oxide film growth on epiready GaAs

The evolution of the native oxide layer on polished epiready GaAs wafers has been studied over a period of almost 2 years using grazing incidence X-ray reflectivity and surface photoabsorption. Using computer-simulated reflectivity profiles to fit the X-ray data, the thickness, density and effective roughness of the oxide layer was measured as a function of time. Surface photoabsorption measurements within a metal-organic vapour phase epitaxy reactor indicated that, after about 5 months, oxide species appeared that required higher temperatures to desorb. There was no difference in the oxide species present for wafers stored in air or in an inert atmosphere. The data suggest that the thickening occurs by reaction of the oxide with the bulk semiconductor material.     

Growth and current-voltage characterization of ZnTe/CdTe heterojunctions

ZnTe layers have been grown on a (111) oriented CdTe single crystal substrate by vacuum thermal evaporation technique. The growth temperature was 180 °C at a base pressure of 10^− 4 N/m². The as-grown samples were investigated by X-ray diffraction. The pattern indicated a highly oriented crystallographic growth of ZnTe (111) layer on CdTe (111) substrate. The current-voltage characteristics in both forward and reverse biasing were carried out in the temperature range from 300 down to 200 K. The dark forward current curves were definitely of the diode type in the forward direction. This behavior can be understood as the barrier at the interface limits forward and reverse carrier flow across the junction, where the built-in potential could be developed. Series resistance due to the neutral region was estimated at approximately 320 Ω and the activation energy of the carriers was calculated and found to be 0.11 ± 0.03 eV. The reverse current shows negative resistance behavior at low voltage range.