Generalization of verbally conditioned self-acceptance to social interaction in small group discussions.

Discusses generalization of change in a socially relevant variable during verbal conditioning trials to social behavior in small groups. On the basis of scores obtained on the E. M. Berger (see 27:7) scale of expressed acceptance-of-self and expressed acceptance-of-others, 2 groups of student nurses were selected for study: (a) a low self-acceptance group (low s-a) (N = 44), and (b) a high self-acceptance group (high s-a) (N =20). The low s-a Ss were randomly assigned to experimental (i.e., reinforced) and control (i.e., nonreinforced) conditions. All low s-a Ss participated in pre- and postconditioning, 4-person discussion groups. Similar preconditioning discussion groups were held for high s-a Ss. Berger scores of self-acceptance were significantly related to judges' ratings of self-acceptance in the group-discussion situation. Verbal conditioning of self-accepting responses on the Berger scale significantly increased judges' ratings of self-acceptance for those Ss who showed a high level of conditioning. (French summary) (17 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Commitment to social deprivation and verbal conditioning.

Control Ss who experienced high prior deprivation of a reinforcing stimulus (approval) responded more with a reinforced response in a verbal conditioning situation than Ss less deprived. Other Ss committed themselves to undergoing postexperimental deprivation of social reinforcement after the same high prior social deprivation. A model suggested by dissonance theory predicted that such Ss who committed themselves for lower rewards would experience greater dissonance; the greater the dissonance, the more could Ss justify their decisions and reduce dissonance by reducing their motive for social reinforcement, consequently behaving in the conditioning situation as Ss who had low motivation for social reinforcement. As expected, experimental Ss in the High Dissonance condition who committed themselves for low reward ($1.00) responded less to social reinforcement, i.e., they showed a smaller increase in response strength of emission of verbal behavior than Control Ss or Low Dissonance Ss who committed themselves for high reward ($5.00). (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social approval on the verbal behavior of emotionally disturbed and normal children.

96 nondefective Ss in Grades 4-9 who were referred to a child psychiatric clinic were compared with a group of 120 public school Ss of similar intellectual and educational level in terms of their response to a Taffel-type verbal conditioning procedure. 1/2 of the Ss in each group were experimental, to whom E said "good" following their use of a 1st-person pronoun, and 1/2 were controls, to whom E made no verbal response. Normal experimental Ss showed a statistically significant increase in their usage of the reinforced words, while clinic experimental Ss, as a group, failed to show a significant increase in such usage. Verbal approval was shown to have a differential effect depending upon the S's emotional status. In neither group did grade level have an effect upon rate of conditioning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and verbal conditioning effects.

In line with the studies on the conditioning of verbal behavior and their reference to psychotherapy, the present study investigates the effects of Autonomy (as measured by the EPPS) upon verbal conditioning. The hypothesis was made that Autonomy would interfere with susceptibility to verbal conditioning. Ss were interviewed, being asked to talk about themselves; E reinforced (said "um-hmm" and nodded head) under 3 conditions, viz., when S made positive self-statements, negative self-statements, or reinforced randomly throughout the interview. The results indicate that by responding selectively, an interviewer can influence the verbalization of S; in this instance, reinforcement was effective in producing a significant effect on positive self-statements, but not negative ones. Meaning of results are discussed with relation to other research and an attempted formulation. From Psyc Abstracts 36:01:3CJ41B. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emergent leadership over time: The functional value of positive motivation.

12 4-member groups of students participated in an experiment designed to test the general hypothesis that relevant sources of motivation (achievement- and affiliation-related) can enable one to predict leadership emergence over time. Ss were paid a wage and bonus for their participation in 5 weekly sessions that lasted 1.5–2.0 hrs. The sessions all consisted of group problem-solving activity and involved group discussion. Members of the group (all male) differed from every other member in their combination of achievement-related and affiliation-related motives (assessed by projective measures). Results reveal significant effects on objective behavioral measures (e.g., quantity of verbal participation) and subjective measures (e.g., leadership elections, leadership ratings). Generally, Ss who were both success-oriented and affiliation-oriented scored highest on all dependent measures. Ss who were both failure-threatened and rejection-threatened scored lowest. In accordance with the hypothesis, these effects persisted over time. Interesting anomalies and auxiliary data relevant to other topics (overmotivation, verbal participation, and leadership) are discussed. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal operant conditioning of hospitalized psychiatric patients.

In Exp. I, 81 male psychiatric patients were divided into 9 subgroups according to age and length of hospitalization. Plural nouns were reinforced by positive verbal feedback. Results were: (1) least chronic Ss increased their operant rates; (2) most chronic Ss did not; and (3) there was significant interaction with respect to age and chronicity. In Exp. II, 60 schizophrenics were divided into 6 subgroups with respect to length of hospitalization and mode of reinforcement, i.e., verbal, primary, or combination. Acute-type schizophrenics responded positively to all types of reinforcement. Chronics responded only to primary reinforcement and to the combination procedure. Mode of reinforcement was a significant variable affecting operant rate. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of effects of small lesions in posterodorsal septum on spontaneous and rerun correction (contingently reinforced) alternation in rats.

Compared characteristics of T-maze alternation behavior by giving 11 hooded rats 7 sessions under conditions of "rerun correction" (contingent reinforcement for alternation) and another 11 Ss the same number of sessions with noncontingent reinforcements (i.e., entering either goal arm of the –T maze was reinforced). Both groups alternated significantly above chance, and the difference in medians between groups was small but significant. However, Ss given rerun correction training quickly came against the "ceiling" of 100% alternation, and individual differences were small. Scores of Ss run under conditions of "spontaneous" alternation were more variable, both within and between Ss. In a 2nd part of the study, 6 Ss in each group received small electrolytic lesions in posterodorsal septum. There were 5 operated-control Ss from each group. After 2-wk recovery all Ss were again given 7 sessions in the –T maze. Under rerun correction procedure, controls retained near-perfect alternation scores. Most Ss with lesions dropped to chance levels but recovered to control level over the sessions. Ss tested under spontaneous alternation conditions behaved quite differently. Controls continued to alternate significantly, but Ss with lesions alternated significantly less and did not recover. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hypotheses and habits in verbal "operant conditioning.'

The traditional explanation of experiments related to conditioning of verbal behavior in terms of operant conditioning, i.e., learning without awareness, was questioned. It was hypothesized that such conditioning to cues given by E might be based on S's awareness of the cue and assumed meaning of such a stimulus. 2 experiments were performed, 1 where plural nouns were reinforced, and a 2nd to test the generalization of this acquired pattern on a word association test. The usual findings re: conditioning of plural nouns was replicated and there seemed to be a carry-over of the set to the word association test. However, some Ss seemed to be aware of the meaning of such a reinforcer as "um-hm." Moreover, response set was also seen to affect conditionability. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparison of verbal reinforcement with information feedback in analogue psychotherapy

Thirty Ss were assigned randomly to one of the two experimental analogue psychotherapy groups and a control group. In the experimental psychotherapy groups two different psychotherapy techniques were used for eight sessions. The two psychotherapy techniques employed were one-word verbal reinforcement (VR) and lengthy verbal information feedback (IF). Three therapists each demonstrated significant differences (P less than .001) in their verbal interactions with the Ss when they used the two different psychotherapy techniques. The results indicated that both treatment techniques were significantly effective (p less than .05) in improving self-ratings of self-concept. However, the two psychotherapy techniques were differentially effective in improving social skills as measured by behavioral ratings.     

Electrical aversion conditioning with chronic alcoholics.

Previous studies suggest the utility of electrical aversion conditioning, but fail to include adequate controls. Pseudoconditioning (random shock delivery), sham conditioning (no shock), and ward controls (routine hospital treatment) were compared with 2 conditioning groups. Conditioning-only (contingent shock) and booster Ss (additional conditioning sessions after release from hospital) were shocked for drinking and reinforced by shock termination for spitting out the alcohol. Sessions were run in a simulated bar setting. 51 of 73 chronic male alcoholics completed treatment and were available for follow-up. The technique significantly increased time to relapse when compared with control groups, among which no significant differences were found. Results suggest the possible usefulness of booster sessions and the potential long-term effectiveness of the technique for some Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal conditioning of middle and lower socioeconomic class schizophrenics.

An experiment with 140 male VA hospital patients assessed the verbal conditioning of middle and lower socioeconomic class schizophrenics and normals under conditions of social reinforcement. Ss were reinforced with a positive or negative word said in a positive, negative, or neutral tone of voice. Social class moderated diagnostic group differences in learning. Combining social classes, schizophrenics learned less than normals with reinforcement entailing incongruent word and tone but were equivalent to normals with congruent word/tone reinforcement pairs (i.e., positive word/positive tone and negative word/negative tone). Results are interpreted in terms of the double-bind theory of G. Bateson et al (1956), which views schizophrenic behavior as a response acquired after prolonged exposure to inconsistent patterns of verbal and nonverbal communication. (26 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conditioning upon preexperimentally acquired verbal habit in psychiatric patients.

20 adult females, hospitalized for psychiatric disorders, 7 displaying initial negative verbal habit and 13 displaying initial positive verbal habit were matched for diagnostic category, age, education, and number of hospitalizations, and divided into 2 groups. Experimental Ss reinforced for displaying a verbal habit opposite to their initial habit significantly increased their tendency to display the reinforced habit. When the initial verbal habit was then reinforced, Ss significantly increased their tendency to display this habit. Control Ss never received reinforcement, and showed no change in initial verbal habit. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lecturing, reading, and modeling in counselor restatement training.

In this study with a total of 92 Caucasian female counselor trainees, Ss' verbal behavior change was viewed as being dependent on the training program components, i.e., verbal, written, and model presentations. Specific hypotheses were derived concerning the quantitative production of the target verbal behavior given the training program design. Ss were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 experimental groups: (a) control group; (b) lecture presentation; (c) lecture and reading presentation; and (d) lecture, reading, and model presentation. After exposure to the training program detailing restatement, Ss responded to 10 audiorecorded client statements. One-way analyses of variance demonstrated that the lecture presentation produced a significant increase of target verbal behavior, as did the addition of reading. Model presentation after the 2 symbolic model presentations did not cause a significant increase in production. Implications of symbolic modeling for counselor training and research are discussed. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Writing and revising persuasive documents: Cognitive demands.

In 2 experiments, 40 graduate and 60 undergraduate students wrote preliminary and final drafts of a persuasive document. In Exp I, the need for Ss to comply with mechanics (i.e., punctuation and spelling), to form complete sentences, and to sequence their ideas, respectively, were eliminated one at a time from preliminary-draft formats. The elimination of sentence-formation and sequence operations produced corresponding increments in persuasive argument production. In Exp II, Ss with average verbal ability (as assessed by the Scholastic Aptitude Test) benefited more from the elimination of these structure operations than did Ss with low verbal ability. When allowed to freely choose their typical preliminary-draft format, Ss with average verbal ability usually selected proposition-based formats (e.g., lists, outlines, and diagrams) that dispensed with the need for structure operations. Ss with average verbal ability also produced more sentences, more arguments per sentence, and fewer mechanical errors than did those with low verbal ability. In both experiments, comparatively few new arguments were constructed during revision. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reinforcement of verbal affect responses of normal subjects during the interview.

"Twenty-six normal individuals, hospitalized for a variety of physical complaints, were interviewed for a period of 30 minutes. Each interview consisted of a 10-minute operant level period, during which E asked questions necessary to maintain S's talk but did not otherwise respond to S's speech; 10 minutes of conditioning, during which E reinforced by agreement all self-referred affect statements; and 10 minutes of extinction, during which E withheld all reinforcement. Conditioning of the verbal response class of self-referred affect statements occurred, and normal Ss showed greater resistance to extinction than did schizophrenics." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relative effectiveness of instructions, agreements, and reinforcement in behavioral contracts with alcoholics.

Evaluated the effects of the components of behavioral contracting on drinking in 40 chronic alcoholics. Ss were divided into 4 groups matched on age, education, length of problem drinking, and initial operant drinking responses. They were then exposed to 1 of the following conditions: (a) verbal instructions to limit alcohol consumption, (b) signed written agreement to limit consumption, (c) verbal instructions plus reinforcement for compliance, and (d) signed agreement plus reinforcement. Pre- and postoperant analog drinking sessions, in which leverpressing was reinforced with alcohol on a fixed ratio reinforcement schedule, served to assess effects of the experimental conditions. Results indicate that while instructions and signed agreements had limited influence on drinking, both groups receiving reinforcement for compliance significantly decreased their operant drinking. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in counseling skills during graduate and undergraduate study.

Compared 13 graduate students in a 1-yr counseling psychology program with 13 psychology undergraduates. 20-min counseling sessions were held on a pre- and postacademic year basis, and counselor verbal responses were analyzed using the C. E. Hill et al (1981) counselor verbal response category system. Undergraduate and graduate Ss both decreased their use of minimal encouragers and increased their information responses, closed questions, and restatements. Graduate-trained Ss used more open questions and more confrontations and tended to use fewer interpretations than did undergraduates when postinterview responses were compared with preinterview responses. Undergraduates increasingly used other responses, whereas graduates virtually eliminated these irrelevant responses from their postyear verbal behavior. In addition to changes in verbal behavior, graduates increased their inner-directedness and self-acceptance as measured by the Personal Orientation Inventory. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Etiquette of verbal conditioning.

Explored the role of ambiguity in producing verbal conditioning by using 2 E types and 2 S types. Es, designated "craftly" because they conditioned their Ss without S becoming aware, were assumed to be more ambiguous than normal Es. Ss uninformed about the correct response were considered to be in a more ambiguous position than informed Ss. 6 college students were assigned to each role within each of the 4 kinds of E-S groups. 1 set of 4 groups sat face-to-face while a visual barrier was interposed between another set. The barrier had no effect on conditioning. As expected, crafty Es were more effective conditioners and their verbal style was rated less clear and less certain. Informed Ss conditioned better than the uninformed. Certain types of ambiguity increase verbal compliance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social interaction and experimenter effects in the verbal conditioning experiment.

Investigated the extent to which the concepts of e effect and e bias could be predicted, in a verbal conditioning situation, from a knowledge of several behaviors observed in the actions of psychological es. Ss were 80 female undergraduates, and es were 25 male undergraduates. Analyses of videotapes of verbal conditioning experiments indicate the importance of interactional behaviors, E.g., e smiling, and e-s eye contact. Also, it appeared that es behaved somewhat differently for positively biased than negatively biased ss. Various interpretations of such results are presented, with implications for the social psychology of verbal conditioning experiments. (french summary) (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hippocampectomy disrupts trace eye-blink conditioning in rabbits.

The role of the hippocampus (HPC) in trace eye-blink conditioning was evaluated using a 100-ms tone conditioned stimulus/stimuli (CS), a 300- or 500-ms trace interval, and a 150-ms air puff unconditioned stimulus/stimuli (UCS). Rabbits received complete hippocampectomy (dorsal & ventral), sham lesions or neocortical lesions. Hippocampectomy produced differential effects in relation to the trace interval used. With a 300-ms trace interval, HPC-lesioned Ss showed profound resistance to extinction after acquisition. With a 500-ms trace interval, HPC-lesioned Ss did not learn the task (only 22% conditioned responses [CRs] after 25 sessions, whereas controls showed >80% after 10 sessions), and on the few trials in which a CR occurred, most were "nonadaptive" short-latency CRs (i.e., they started during or just after the CS and always terminated prior to UCS onset). The authors conclude that the HPC encodes a temporal relationship between CS and UCS, and when the trace interval is long enough (e.g., 500 ms), that the HPC is necessary for associative learning of the conditioned eye-blink response. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)