A routing protocol for mobile ad‐hoc networks using the profit optimization model

Recently, wireless networks have become one of the major development trends in computer network technology. Because there is no more need of the wired transmission medium, applications have thus diversified. One such growing field of wireless networks is the mobile ad‐hoc network (MANET). A MANET consists of mobile hosts (such as portable laptops, vehicles, etc.), and no fixed infrastructure is required. MANETs provide ease of self‐configuration and can extend coverage at a low cost. Numerous applications have therefore been proposed under this network environment for daily life use. Because MANETs nodes are capable of moving, MANET network topology changes frequently. Thus, the traditional routing protocols fail to fit such an environment. In this paper, we propose an efficient routing protocol for MANETs, which integrates the mathematical model of profit optimization (the Kelly formula) from the field of economics to cope with the routing problem caused by node mobility. Some numerical simulations have been conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed method using the network simulator NS‐2. The results show that our proposed method outperforms conventional routing protocols in packet delivery ratio comparisons; and the average end‐to‐end delays are within a tolerable range. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An EDRI-based approach for detecting and eliminating cooperative black hole nodes in MANET

Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET) is a self-configurable, self-maintenance network with wireless, mobile nodes. Special features of MANET like dynamic topology, hop-by-hop communications and open network boundary, made security highly challengeable in this network. From security aspect, routing protocols are highly vulnerable against a wide range of attacks like black hole. In black hole attack malicious node injects fault routing information to the network and leads all data packets toward it-self. In this paper, we proposed an approach to detect and eliminate cooperative malicious nodes in MANET with AODV routing protocol. A data control packet is used in order to check the nodes in selected path; also, by using an Extended Data Routing Information table, all malicious nodes in selected path are detected, then, eliminated from network. For evaluation, our approach and a previous work have been implemented using Opnet 14 in different scenarios. Referring to simulation results, the proposed approach decreases packet overhead and delay of security mechanism with no false positive detection. In addition, network throughput is improved by using the proposed approach.     

An energy aware algorithm for OLSR clustering

One of the important aspects of a mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is the limitation of the amount of available energy and the network lifetime. The tremendous amount of using mobile nodes in wireless communication medium makes energy efficiency a fundamental requirement for MANETs. In this paper, we propose a novel energy aware clustering algorithm for the optimized link state routing (OLSR) routing protocol. This algorithm takes into account the node density and mobility and gives major improvements regarding the number of elected cluster heads. Our objective is to elect a reasonable number of cluster heads that will serve for hierarchical routing based on OLSR. The proposed algorithm aims to increase the network lifetime by considering the ad hoc residual energy while taking routing decisions. It also optimizes the delay of carried flows by adopting a selective forwarding approach based on a hierarchical routing model.     

Invincible AODV to detect black hole and gray hole attacks in mobile ad hoc networks

Today's communication world is majorly driven by mobile nodes that demand wireless systems for their data relay. One such network is mobile ad hoc network, which is a purely wireless network with which communication is feasible instantly without any aid of preexisting infrastructure; due to this magnificent feature, it has a wide variety of applications. Mobile ad hoc network hinges on cooperative nature of the mobile nodes for relaying data. But at the same time, nodes relaying data for others may compromise, leading to various security attacks. Two main security attacks that drastically bring down the performance of mobile ad hoc network are black hole and gray hole attacks. In this paper, we propose 2 versions of invincible Ad hoc On‐Demand Distance Vector protocol to detect black hole and gray hole nodes that have bypassed preventive mechanism during route discovery process. First is the basic version, which is based on node‐to‐node frame check sequence tracking mechanism, and second is the enhanced version, which is based on signed frame check sequence tracking mechanism. They create a deterrent environment addressing all kinds of black and gray hole attacks. They also provide reliable data transmission to all the nonmalicious nodes in the network by using end‐to‐end authentication mechanism. Simulation results show better performance in packet delivery ratio when compared with other contemporary solutions while addressing all kinds of black and gray hole attacks. It shows significant improvement in end‐to‐end delay and normalized routing load over Ad hoc On‐Demand Distance Vector under black hole or gray hole attacks and also shows better throughput and packet delivery ratio than the existing solution.     

The Effects of Physical Layer on the Routing Wireless Protocol

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are characterized by multiple entities, a frequently changing network topology and the need for efficient dynamic routing protocols. In MANETs, nodes are usually powered by batteries. Power control is tightly coupled with both the physical and medium access layers (MACs). However, if we increase the transmission power, at the same time we increase the interference to other nodes which diminish the transport capacity of wireless systems. Thus, the routing protocols based on hop count metric suffer from performance degradation when they operate over MANET. Routing in ad hoc wireless networks is not only a problem of finding a route with shortest length, but it is also a problem of finding a stable and good quality communication route in order to avoid any unnecessary packet loss. Cross-layer design of ad hoc wireless networks has been receiving increasing attention recently. Part of these researches suggests that routing should take into account physical layer characteristics. The goal of this paper is to improve the routing reliability in MANET and to reduce power consumption through cross-layer approach among physical, MAC and network layers. The proposed cross-layer approach is based on signal to interference plus noise ratio (SINR) and received signal strength indication (RSSI) coming from the physical layer. This solution performs in one hand the ad hoc on-demand distance vector routing protocol by choosing reliable routes with less interferences using SINR metric and in another hand; it permits to reduce the power transmission when sending the data packets by using RSSI metric.     

Integrating Mobile Ad Hoc Network to the Internet

A novel scheme is presented to integrate mobile ad hoc networks （MANETs） with the lnternet and support mobility across wireless local area networks （WLANs） and MANETs. The mobile nodes, connected as a MANET, employ the optimize d link state routing （OLSR） protocol for routing within the MANET. Mobility management across WLANs and MANETs is achieved through the hierarchical mobile IPv6 （HMIPv6） protocol. The performance is evaluated on a HMIPv6 based test-bed composed of WLANs and MANETs. The efficiency gain obtained from using HMIPv6 in such a hybrid network is investigated. The investigation result shows that the use of HMIPv6 can achieve up to 27% gain on reducing the handoff latency when a mobile roams within a domain. Concerning the reduction of the signaling load on the lnternet, the use of HMIPv6 can achieve at least a 54% gain and converges to 69%.     

Friend-assisted intrusion detection and response mechanisms for mobile ad hoc networks

Nowadays, a commonly used wireless network (i.e., Wi-Fi) operates with the aid of a fixed infrastructure (i.e., an access point) to facilitate communication between nodes. The need for such a fixed supporting infrastructure limits the adaptability and usability of the wireless network, especially in situations where the deployment of such an infrastructure is impractical. Recent advancements in computer network introduced a new wireless network, known as a mobile ad hoc network (MANET), to overcome the limitations. Often referred as a peer to peer network, the network does not have any fixed topology, and through its multi hop routing facility, each node can function as a router, thus communication between nodes becomes available without the need of a supporting fixed router or an access point. However, these useful facilities come with big challenges, particularly with respect to providing security. A comprehensive analysis of attacks and existing security measures suggested that MANET are not immune to a colluding blackmail because such a network comprises autonomous and anonymous nodes. This paper addresses MANET security issues by proposing a novel intrusion detection system based upon a friendship concept, which could be used to complement existing prevention mechanisms that have been proposed to secure MANETs. Results obtained from the experiments proved that the proposed concepts are capable of minimising the problem currently faced in MANET intrusion detection system (IDS). Through a friendship mechanism, the problems of false accusations and false alarms caused by blackmail attackers in intrusion detection and response mechanisms can be eliminated.     

DEBH: detecting and eliminating black holes in mobile ad hoc network

Security in mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is one of the key challenges due to its special features e.g. hop-by-hop communications, dynamic topology, and open network boundary that received tremendous attention by scholars. Traditional security methods are not applicable in MANET due to its special properties. In this paper, a novel approach called detecting and eliminating black holes (DEBH) is proposed that uses a data control packet and an additional black hole check table for detecting and eliminating malicious nodes. Benefiting from trustable nodes, the processing overhead of the security method decreases by passing time. Ad hoc on-demand distance vector (AODV) routing protocol is used as the routing protocol in our design. After finding the freshest path using AODV, our design checks the safety of selected path. In case of detecting any malicious node, it is isolated from the entire network by broadcasting a packet that contains the ID of malicious nodes. Simulation results show that DEBH increases network throughput and decreases packet overhead and delay in comparison with other studied approaches. Moreover, DEBH is able to detect all active malicious nodes which generates fault routing information.     

Load balanced routing protocols for ad hoc mobile wireless networks - [Topics in ad hoc and sensor networks]

Mobile ad hoc networks are collections of mobile nodes that can dynamically form temporary networks without the need for pre-existing network infrastructure or centralized administration. These nodes can be arbitrarily located and can move freely at any given time. Hence, the network topology can change rapidly and unpredictably. Because wireless link capacities are usually limited, congestion is possible in MANETs. Hence, balancing the load in a MANET is important since nodes with high loads will deplete their batteries quickly, thereby increasing the probability of disconnecting or partitioning the network. This article discusses the various load metrics and summarizes the principles behind several existing load balanced ad hoc routing protocols. Finally, a qualitative comparison of the various load metrics and load balanced routing protocols is presented.     

Performance Modeling of MANET Interconnectivity

The proliferation of mobile wireless computing devices and the increasing usage of wireless networking have motivated substantial research in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). In addition, much has also been done to link autonomous MANETs to the Internet, and as MANETs become more prevalent, the need to interconnect multiple MANETs becomes increasingly important too. However, direct interconnection of MANETs has rarely been studied. In this paper, we first report an experimental study on the performance of interconnected MANETs running two different routing protocols, viz., the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) and Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) protocols, which represent the two major categories, and show that with the use of multiple gateways, it is possible to viably interconnect multiple networks running different MANET routing protocols. We then follow with a simulation study to evaluate the performance in large networks, which not only validates the scalability of the proposed scheme, but also helps to identify various problems that were not apparent in small experimental networks.     

AODVCS,a new bio-inspired routing protocol based on cuckoo search algorithm for mobile ad hoc networks

Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) are becoming an emerging technology that offer several advantages to users in terms of cost and ease of use. A MANET is a collection of mobile nodes connected by wireless links that form a temporary network topology that operates without a base station and centralized administration. Routing is a method through which information is forwarded from a transmitter to a specific recipient. Routing is a strategy that guarantees, at any time, the connection between any two nodes in a network. In this work, we propose a novel routing protocol inspired by the cuckoo search method. Our routing protocol is implemented using Network simulator 2. We chose Random WayPoint model as our mobility model. To validate our work, we opted for the comparison with the routing protocol ad hoc on-demand distance vector, destination sequence distance vector and the bio-inspired routing protocol AntHocNet in terms of the quality of service parameters: packet delivery ratio and end-to-end delay (E2ED).     

Provisioning of adaptability to variable topologies for routing schemes in MANETs

Frequent changes in network topologies caused by mobility in mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) impose great challenges to designing routing schemes for such networks. Various routing schemes each aiming at particular type of MANET (e.g., flat or clustered MANETs) with different mobility degrees (e.g., low, medium, and high mobility) have been proposed in the literature. However, since a mobile node should not be limited to operate in a particular MANET assumed by a routing scheme, an important issue is how to enable a mobile node to achieve routing performance as high as possible when it roams across different types of MANETs. To handle this issue, a quantity that can predict the link status for a time period in the future with the consideration of mobility is required. In this paper, we discuss such a quantity and investigate how well this quantity can be used by the link caching scheme in the dynamic source routing protocol to provide the adaptability to variable topologies caused by mobility through computer simulation in NS-2.     

MANET路由与路由安全问题

移动自组网MANET(Mobile Ad Hoc Networks)是一种新型的无线移动网络,由于它具有开放的媒质、动态的拓扑、分布式合作以及网络能力受限等特点,因此特别容易受到攻击。路由安全是MANET安全中的重要一环。介绍了移动自组网的路由协议以及面临的路由安全问题,重点分析了AODV路由协议的寻路过程以及其存在的安全问题之一———黑洞。在分析了一些已有解决方案存在的缺点的基础上,提出了一种新的解决方案,该方案有效地解决了黑洞问题,并消除了已有方案存在的漏洞。     

Constructing secure group communication over wireless ad hoc networks based on a virtual subnet model

Recently, more and more people have begun using mobile devices such as PDAs and notebooks. Our lives have been profoundly affected by such devices. A MANET, a mobile ad hoc network, is an effective networking system facilitating an exchange data between mobile devices, without the support of wireless access points and base stations. A MANET is not restricted to unicast or multicast communication, but can also provide "many-to-many" transmission, which can be treated as a group communication. Until recently, however, the way in which such groups are formed had not drawn much attention. Because communication in wireless networks is broadcast and a certain amount of devices can receive transmitted messages, the risk of unsecured sensitive information being intercepted by unintended recipients is a real concern. Consequently, efforts to ensure the security of group communications in MANETs are essential. This article proposes a virtual subnet model to construct secure group communication over a MANET. With the model, the composition of groups is established as the forming of group keys. Our results show that this approach can completely satisfy the needs for both security and efficiency.     

移动Ad Hoc网络安全按需路由协议

Ad Hoc网络的安全性问题越来越引起人们的关注,如何确保Ad Hoc网络路由协议的安全成为Ad Hoc研究的一项关键技术。提出一种适用于移动Ad Hoc网络的安全按需源路由协议,利用移动节点之间的会话密钥和基于散列函数的消息鉴别码HMAC一起来验证路由发现和路由应答的有效性。提出的邻居节点维护机制通过把MAC地址和每个节点的ID绑定来防御各种复杂的攻击如虫洞攻击。NS-2仿真表明该协议能有效地探测和阻止针对Ad Hoc网络的大部分攻击。     

An energy efficient and QoS routing protocol for MANET realised over multi-objective red deer algorithm (RD-MOCER) in support of emergency disaster management

Terrorist attacks have contributed significantly to using wireless technologies to identify concrete destruction survivors. A dynamic ad hoc mobile network (MANET) consists of wireless linked nodes, which route hop-by-hop without the support of a fixed infrastructure acquires information from trapped survivors. The energy efficiency that extends the lifespan of the network is an essential prerequisite of MANET. Researchers have suggested many strategies to accomplish this purpose and a cluster of these techniques in MANETs are used to provide an energy-efficient approach. In this paper we are proposing a red deer multi-objective constraint applied for an energy efficient QoS routing (RD-MOCER) algorithm to the number of clusters in an ad hoc network and the energy dispensing in nodes to provide an energy effective solution and to minimise network traffic. Intracluster and intercluster traffic is handled by the cluster heads in the proposed approach. The algorithm suggested takes account of mobile nodes' node degrees, transmitting capacity and battery power usage. This approach gives a variety of options at a time, the key benefit of which is that the ideal Pareto front results in these solutions. We correlate the findings with two other well-known methods of clustering; MOPSO and MOEAQ-based clustering with different results. We conduct detailed simulations to demonstrate that the solution proposed is an effective and stronger solution to clustering in ad hoc cell networks than the other two techniques.     

Simulation of Ad Hoc Routing Protocols using OMNeT++

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) have evolved in the last years into standards in the communication world. By definition, they do not need any network infrastructure to facilitate communication between participating nodes. Therefore, MANETs are dealing with new challenges in the context of ad hoc routing. Simulation techniques are one of the fundamental methodologies to support the protocol engineering process, especially in the early stages of ad hoc network protocol design. In this paper, we set out common criteria that may serve as guidelines for meaningful simulative evaluations of ad hoc routing protocols. We present typical and necessary measures for ad hoc routing in general and MANET routing in particular. As a case study, we demonstrate a comprehensive performance evaluation of the Dynamic MANET On Demand (DYMO) routing protocol using a model we implemented for the popular OMNeT+ + discrete event simulation environment.     

IoT energy efficiency routing protocol using FHO-based clustering and improved CSO model-based routing in MANET

Many protocols, services, and electrical devices with built-in sensors have been developed in response to the rapid expansion of the Internet of Things. Mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) consist of a collection of autonomous mobile nodes that can form an ad hoc network in the absence of any pre-existing infrastructure. System performance may suffer due to the changeable topology of MANETs. Since most mobile hosts operate on limited battery power, energy consumption poses the biggest challenge for MANETs. Both network lifetime and throughput improve when energy usage is reduced. However, existing approaches perform poorly in terms of energy efficiency. Scalability becomes a significant issue in large-scale networks as they grow, leading to overhead associated with routing updates and maintenance that can become unmanageable. This article employs a MANET routing protocol combined with an energy conservation strategy. The clustering hierarchy is used in MANETs to maximize the network's lifespan, considering its limited energy resources. In the MANET communication process, the cluster head (CH) is selected using Fire Hawk Optimization (FHO). When choosing nodes to act as a cluster for an extended period, CH election factors in connectivity, mobility, and remaining energy. This process is achieved using an optimized version of the Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol, utilizing Improved Chicken Swarm Optimization (ICSO). In comparison to existing protocols and optimization techniques, the proposed method offers an extended network lifespan ranging from 90 to 160 h and reduced energy consumption of 80 to 110 J, as indicated by the implementation results.     

Trust Based Detection and Elimination of Packet Drop Attack in the Mobile Ad-Hoc Networks

The mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is communication network of a mobile node without any prior infrastructure of communication. The network does not have any static support; it dynamically creates the network as per requirement by using available mobile nodes. This network has a challenging security problem. The security issue mainly contains a denial of service attacks like packet drop attack, black-hole attack, gray-hole attack, etc. The mobile ad-hoc network is an open environment so the working is based on mutual trust between mobile nodes. The MANETs are vulnerable to packet drop attack in which packets travel through the different node. The network while communicating, the node drops the packet, but it is not attracting the neighboring nodes to drop the packets. This proposed algorithm works with existing routing protocol. The concept of trusted list is used for secure communication path. The trusted list along with trust values show how many times node was participated in the communication. It differentiates between altruism and selfishness in MANET with the help of energy level of mobile components. The trust and energy models are used for security and for the differentiation between altruism and selfishness respectively.     

GPS/Ant-Like Routing in Ad Hoc Networks

A mobile ad hoc network (MANET) is comprised of mobile hosts that can communicate with each other using wireless links. In this paper we present a novel routing algorithm called GPSAL (GPS/Ant-Like Routing Algorithm) which is based on GPS (Global Positioning System) and mobile software agents modeled on ants for routing in ad hoc networks. We compare our algorithm to the Location-Aided Routing (LAR) [20] algorithm for MANET which is also based on GPS. Simulation results show that our algorithm has less overhead than LAR.