Relations of conceptions of gender-role transgressions and gender constancy to gender-typed toy preferences.

Examined the relations among preschoolers' gender-typed toy choice, their judgments regarding cross-gender behavior, and gender constancy. Gender-typed toy choice of 87 preschool children was assessed with a measure in which children could base their choices not only on gender but also on attractiveness. Children's judgments regarding cross-gender behavior were measured, and their level of cognitive constancy was assessed. Results indicated that children's level of reasoning, but not their gender constancy level, was related to gender-typed toy preferences. Children with more flexible norms, who could distinguish between moral and social norms, exhibited less gender-typed toy choices than children with rigid norms. Results are discussed in terms of the relation between cognitive aspects of gender typing and gender-typed toy preference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonegocentrism and communication mode switching in Black preschool children.

39 4- and 5-yr-old lower socioeconomic status Black children were administered a simple communication task in 2 situations, one in which the E was blindfolded and the other in which she could see the array of toy referents. Half the Ss were well acquainted with the E, and the other half had never met her before. The majority of the Ss gave appropriate responses in both the blindfolded and nonblindfolded E trials, many switching response modes from pointing when the E could see, to verbalization when she was blindfolded. Order of presentation of the blindfolded and nonblindfolded conditions did not significantly affect amount of appropriate responding, nor did familiarity with the E or age or sex of S. It is concluded that young Black children, often reported to be nonverbal or to react incorrectly in verbal situations, can respond appropriately as a function of situational requirements in a gamelike and motivating communication task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cellular distribution of calbindin D28K mRNAs in the adult mouse brain

Catching a moving object requires the ability to predict the future trajectory of the object. To test whether infants can use visual information predictively, reaching for a toy moving at different speeds was investigated in six infants around 11 months of age. The toy was occluded from view by a screen during the last part of its approach. Gaze arrived at the exit side of the screen and the hand started to move forward before the toy had disappeared behind the occluder; these actions were prospectively geared to certain times before the toy would reappear. In addition, hand-movement duration was found to be related to the time of reappearance of the toy--the information used to regulate duration of hand movement being picked up before the toy disappeared behind the occluder. In a longitudinal experiment, the development of predictive reaching was investigated in two infants between the ages of 20 and 48 weeks. At all ages studied, gaze anticipated the reappearance of the moving toy. However, anticipation with hand movement of the disappearance of the toy and the ability to gear actions prospectively to the time (instead of distance) the toy was away from certain points on the track developed relatively late and marked the transition to successfully catching faster-moving toys.     

Gender constancy and the "cost" of sex-typed behavior: A test of the conflict hypothesis.

95 children between 5- and 10-yrs-old watched televised boys and girls who differentially endorsed toys of varying attractiveness. The study was designed to test the hypothesis that behavioral expression of gender norms that arouse conflict would be delayed relative to norms that are conflict-free. Predictions were supported for boys. Gender-constant boys spent more time playing with an uninteresting sex-typed toy than did preconstant boys. When the sex-typed toy was relatively interesting, preconstant boys played with it as much as gender constant boys. Toy play among girls was related to toy attractiveness and the girl's agreement with televised stereotypes. Possible reasons for observed sex differences and previous inconsistencies in the gender constancy literature are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

离子色谱-电感耦合等离子体质谱联用测定玩具材料中痕量可迁移六价铬

准确测定玩具材料中的可迁移Cr(Ⅵ)对保证玩具材料安全十分重要。以0.07 mol/L盐酸提取样品,使用IonPac AG7阴离子色谱柱,以浓度为75 mmol/L、pH值为7.0的硝酸铵溶液为流动相,控制流动相流速为1.0 mL/min,进样量为200 μL,建立了离子色谱-电感耦合等离子体质谱(IC-ICP-MS)联用测定玩具材料中痕量可迁移Cr(Ⅵ)的方法。在优化的实验条件下,Cr(Ⅵ)质量浓度在0.005～1.000 μg/L范围内与其对应的峰高线性关系良好,相关系数为0.999,方法检出限和定量限分别为0.006 μg/L和0.02 μg/L。以0.1 μg/L标准溶液进样进行测定,结果的相对标准偏差(RSD,n=7)小于3%。对未检出Cr(Ⅵ)的空白玩具黏土样品进行加标回收试验,结果显示两个浓度的加标回收率为96%和104%。采用实验方法对3种颜色玩具黏土(I类)、泡泡水(II类)和积木涂层(III类)等玩具样品按照规定中的分类进行分析,结果表明,3种颜色玩具黏土和泡泡水均未检出可迁移Cr(Ⅵ),儿童积木涂层检测出可迁移Cr(Ⅵ)的量为0.023 8 mg/kg,相对标准偏差(RSD, n=7)为6.4%,加标回收率为91%～110%。     

Correlates of preschool girls' feminine and masculine toy preferences.

Observed 47 preschool girls (2.5–4 yrs old) in social interaction with boys and girls. For young Ss, feminine toy preference was positively related to interaction with girls, whereas masculine toy choice was positively associated with interaction with boys. For older girls, feminine toy choice was positively related to interaction with girls. Large, older girls tended to play with masculine toys. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The combined contributions of the cue-familiarity and accessibility heuristics to feelings of knowing.

A model for the basis of feeling of knowing (FOK) is proposed, which combines 2 apparently competing accounts, cue familiarity (L. M. Reder, see record 1987-12470-001) and accessibility (A. Koriat, see record 1994-04361-001). Both cue familiarity and accessibility are assumed to contribute asynchronously to FOK, but whereas the effects of familiarity occur early, those of accessibility occur later and only when cue familiarity is sufficiently high to drive the interrogation of memory for potential answers. General information questions were used to orthogonally manipulate cue familiarity and accessibility. As expected, both familiarity and accessibility enhanced FOK judgments, but the effects of accessibility were found mostly when familiarity was high. This interactive pattern was replicated when FOK judgments were delayed but not when they were immediate. The results support the proposed cascaded model of FOK but also imply a differentiation between 2 variants of the accessibility heuristic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental features of exploration.

Developmentally analyzed the exploratory patterns of 112 4–12 yr olds. Ss were presented with groups of visual patterns, songs, and toys and asked about their preference for 1 item in each group. Analysis of the Ss' preferences for both visual and auditory stimuli revealed a significant increase in preference for complexity with age. Ss' preference for a unknown toy over a known toy was influenced by the novelty of the known toy. Ss were less likely to surrender a more novel known toy; this relation became stronger with age. Analysis of Ss' exploration of novel, concealed toys indicated that older Ss were more likely to systematically examine all the toys first before returning for a in-depth appraisal of particular toys of interest. The younger Ss were more likely to be captivated by a novel toy and not to finish examining the rest of the environment. There was some evidence of a qualitative jump in development between these 2 strategies. Younger Ss were also more likely to ask an adult questions as a means of acquiring information, and Ss of all ages asked most of their questions at the beginning of the exploratory task. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender labeling and the adoption of sex-typed behaviors.

A gender-labeling task was used to test the ability of 21 girls and 22 boys ranging in age from 21 to 40 mo to discriminate between pictures of boys and girls and male and female adults. Ss who passed the gender task (mean age 30 mo) were compared with Ss who failed it (mean age 26 mo) on 3 behaviors most often categorized as sex typed (toy choice, aggression, and peer playmate selection). It was predicted that Ss who passed the task would choose more sex-typed toys and same-sex peers and that there would be a drop in aggression for girls who passed but no change for boys. Results confirm the predictions for aggression and peer choice but not for toy choice. The relation between the child's understanding of gender categories and environmental influences is discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Familiarity with content and conditional reasoning.

Examined the relationship between familiarity of content and conditional reasoning. It was hypothesized that there would be an interaction between Ss' familiarity with content in the premises and their conditional reasoning performance. 43 graduate students in education and 53 1st-yr dentistry students took a 30-item test of conditional reasoning that was based on 5 logical arguments each repeated twice with symbolic, lay dental, and professional dental content. Data were analyzed using a 2-way multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures with the 5 arguments as dependent variables. The interaction between student type and content was not supported. Significant main effects for content were attributed to the lay and professional vs symbolic contrast. It is concluded that conditional reasoning performance was not influenced by Ss' familiarity content in the premises. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of instructions concerning ownership of a toy on preschoolers' sharing and defensive behaviors.

68 preschoolers 30–60 mo old were told that a toy belonged either to them or to the class or were given no specific instructions. Their subsequent behavior with the toy was observed. Children of all ages defended the toy more in the "yours" condition than in the "class" condition. Girls, but not boys, exhibited more defensive behavior with age. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The conscious, the unconscious, and familiarity.

This article examines the role of subjective familiarity in the implicit and explicit learning of artificial grammars. Experiment 1 found that objective measures of similarity (including fragment frequency and repetition structure) predicted ratings of familiarity, that familiarity ratings predicted grammaticality judgments, and that the extremity of familiarity ratings predicted confidence. Familiarity was further shown to predict judgments in the absence of confidence, hence contributing to above-chance guessing. Experiment 2 found that confidence developed as participants refined their knowledge of the distribution of familiarity and that differences in familiarity could be exploited prior to confidence developing. Experiment 3 found that familiarity was consciously exploited to make grammaticality judgments including those made without confidence and that familiarity could in some instances influence participants' grammaticality judgments apparently without their awareness. All 3 experiments found that knowledge distinct from familiarity was derived only under deliberate learning conditions. The results provide decisive evidence that familiarity is the essential source of knowledge in artificial grammar learning while also supporting a dual-process model of implicit and explicit learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Resolving 20 years of inconsistent interactions between lexical familiarity and orthography, concreteness, and polysemy.

Word recognition studies conducted over the past 2 decades manipulated lexical familiarity by presenting words of high vs low printed frequency, and most reported an interaction between printed frequency and one of several second variables, namely, orthographic regularity, semantic concreteness, or polysemy. However, the direction of these interactions was inconsistent from study to study. Six new experiments clarify these discordant results. Exps I and II, conducted with 89 college students, demonstrate that words of the same low printed frequency are not always equally familiar to Ss. Instead, Ss' ratings of experiential familiarity suggest that many of the low-printed-frequency words used in prior studies varied along this dimension. Four lexical decision experiments, conducted with 78 undergraduates, reexamined the prior findings by orthogonally manipulating lexical familiarity, as assessed by experiential familiarity ratings, with bigram frequency, semantic concreteness, and number of meanings. Results suggest that of these variables, only experiential familiarity reliably affects word recognition latencies. This in turn suggests that previous inconsistent findings were due to confounding experiential familiarity with a second variable. (68 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the attractiveness of forbidden objects.

Toys were ranked for attractiveness by 15 preschool and 21 4th-grade children. After the initial ranking, the S was told that he could not play with one of the toys. Each toy was subsequently ranked a 2nd time. Results show a strong decrease in the attractiveness of the forbidden toy by preschoolers, but an increase in attractiveness was exhibited by 4th graders. Results suggest that a perceived association between an object's being forbidden and its attractiveness may be learned through the course of socialization. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The onset of representation and entry into Stage 6 of object permanence development.

Attempted to determine whether infants' performance in 2 search tasks was related to their entry into Stage 6 of object permanence development and thereby to test Piaget's claim that only Stage 6 infants possess the capacity for representation. Ss were 85 10-mo-olds. In these tasks, Ss found either the same toy as or a different toy than they had seen hidden (Task 1) or which their mother had told them to find (Task 2). Two dependent measures used in each task were the Ss' continuation of search and their smiling in reaction to finding a toy. In both longitudinal and cross-sectional designs, Ss in early Stage 6 (i.e., solving a single invisible displacement), but not in Stage 5, responded differentially on these measures. The early Stage 6 Ss continued to search more frequently in reaction to finding the toy in the different than same condition, while they smiled longer and earlier in the same than different condition. Results suggest that infants begin to demonstrate some representative capacity during early Stage 6 of object permanence development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Selective retrieving by maternal and nonmaternal female rats.

Conducted an investigation to learn whether nonpregnant female rats made maternal by exposure to pups would act more like nonmaternal females than lactating mothers. Ss were 32 nulliparous females of the Charles River CD strain and an additional number of females that provided pups for inducing maternal behavior in virgins and in testing all Ss in pup vs toy tests. The behavior toward a pup and a toy was studied in 1 group of nonmaternal virgins, 2 groups of maternal virgins, and 1 group of lactating mothers, during 7 daily 5-min tests. Measures of the frequency and duration of retrieving-related behavior and analysis of behavioral sequences in relation to the pup or toy showed that pup-induced maternal virgins more closely resemble the lactating mothers than nonmaternal virgins. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Where do I go next? Intelligent searching by very young children.

A memory-based search task was used to investigate the organization of searching by 24 young children. The task required Ss to remember in what natural location a toy had been hidden. Both an older (25–30 mo of age) and a younger (18–23 mo of age) group of Ss achieved a high level of errorless retrievals. To examine Ss' ability to search differentially as a function of their own level of certainty that they remembered the location of the toy, 2 surprise trials were included in which the toy was hidden as usual but was then moved without the S's knowledge. Ss' search behavior on these surprise trials was compared to their error trials. Both age groups showed greater persistence in their initial search on surprise than on error trials, indicating that their retrieval effort was based on their level of subjective certainty. The 2 age groups displayed different patterns in the subsequent searching that they did: The older, but not the younger, Ss searched differently on surprise and error trials. On surprise trials they searched selectively and intelligently, confining their search primarily to locations that were nearby or in some way related to the place where the toy had actually been hidden. The related searching of the older Ss suggests that they had made intelligent guesses about plausible alternative locations for the missing toy. Data provide evidence of early manifestations of metamemory. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Recollections of true and false autobiographical memories.

Two diarists recorded true and false events and thoughts over a period of 5 months. In recognition tests taken 7 months later, they discriminated between true and false diary entries and judged their state of memory awareness as recollective experience, feeling of familiarity, or no distinct state of awareness. Correct recognition rates for true events and thoughts were high. Events were associated with recollective experience and thoughts with feelings of familiarity. Incorrect recognition was higher for thoughts than events. False memories were associated with familiarity or no distinct state of awareness. For correct memories of events only, factors influencing encoding (importance, consequentiality, etc.) interacted with state of memory awareness at retrieval. The quality of phenomenal experience, based on the associations between encoding and retrieval, may be critical in leading a remeberer to accept a memory as true. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)